GLOBAL INFORMATION

SOCIETY WATCH 2021-2022

Digital futures for a post-pandemic world

AssociAtion for Progressive communicAtions (APc)

And swedish internAtionAl develoPment cooPerAtion Agency (sidA)

Global Information Society Watch 2021-2022

Digital futures for a post-pandemic world

Operational team

Valeria Betancourt (APC)

Alan Finlay (APC)

Maja Romano (APC)

Project coordination team

Valeria Betancourt (APC)

Cathy Chen (APC)

Flavia Fascendini (APC)

Alan Finlay (APC)

Leila Nachawati (APC)

Lori Nordstrom (APC)

Maja Romano (APC)

Project coordinator

Maja Romano (APC)

Editor

Alan Finlay (APC)

Assistant editor and proofreading

Lori Nordstrom (APC)

Assistant proofreader

Drew McKevitt

Publication production support

Cathy Chen (APC)

Graphic design

Monocromo

Cover illustration

Matías Bervejillo

APC would like to thank the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) for their support for Global Information Society Watch 2021-2022.

Published by APC

2022

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Some rights reserved.

Global Information Society Watch 2021-2022 web and e-book

ISBN 978-92-95113-52-7

APC-202211-CIPP-R-EN-DIGITAL-342

Disclaimer: The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of Sida, APC or its members.

Table of contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Internet governance of the future  . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Valeria Betancourt (APC)

Anriette Esterhuysen and Wim Degezelle

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Valeria Betancourt and Alan Finlay

COUNTRY AND REGIONAL REPORTS

Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Nodo TAU - maría florencia roveri

THEMATIC REPORTS

Bangladesh  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Advocacy for community-led connectivity

Bytesforall Bangladesh - partha sarker and munir hasan

access in the global South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Benin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Kathleen Diga, Cynthia el Khoury, Michael Jensen,

Sênoudé Pacôme Tomètissi

Carlos Rey-Moreno and Débora Prado

Brazil  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

local networks (locnet) initiative, apc

Centro de Comunicação, Democracia e Cidadania da Universidade

Another look at internet regulation:

Federal da Bahia (Centre for Communication, Democracy and Citizenship

at the Federal University of Bahia) and Intervozes – Coletivo Brasil

Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic  . . . . . . . . 18

de Comunicação Social (Intervozes – Brazilian Social Communication

J. Carlos Lara and Jamila Venturini

Collective) - tâmara terso, paulo victor melo and iraildon mota

derechos digitales

Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Tech, data and the pandemic:

Instituto de Pesquisa em Direito e Tecnologia do Recife (IP.rec) -

Reflecting for next time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

andré ramiro and mariana canto

Alexandrine Pirlot de Corbion and Gus Hosein

Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

privacy international

Protege QV - serge daho, avis momeni and emmanuel bikobo

Big data, big tech, big problems:

Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

eQualitie -

Time to look beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

michel lambert

Paz Peña

Colombia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Colnodo - marcya hernández

The rights approach: Pushing back against

Congo, Democratic Republic of  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

opaque public-private partnerships  . . . . . . . . . . 34

Bingwa Civic Tech Lab - providence baraka

Gayatri Khandhadai

Congo, Democratic Republic of  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

business and human rights resource centre

Mesh Bukavu - pacifique zikomangane

Global digital labour platforms offer a mirage

Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

of inclusive development in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Technische Universität München - yawri carr

Kelle Howson

Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

research ict africa; fairwork, oxford internet institute

Cooperativa Sulá Batsú  - kemly camacho

Advocacy in times of TRIPS waiver  . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

Deepika Yadav

RedesAyuda - david aragort

digital trade alliance

El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Documenting and navigating emerging

HNL Consultores - josé roberto amaya valencia

trends for digital rights funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Natalia Tariq

Digital Empowerment Foundation and Council for Social and

association for progressive communication

Digital Development  - osama manzar, syed s. kazi and tuisha sircar

Organising for sustainable connectivity:

Kenya  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Centring communities in crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

ARTICLE 19 Eastern Africa - atherine muya, muthuri kathure and mugambi kiai

Shawna Finnegan and APC Environmental Sustainability

Kenya  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Working Group

NBO Legal Hackers - francis monyango

A feminist backpack for crises: Care-fullness,

Korea, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

messiness and responsive knowledge . . . . . . . . 56

Korean Progressive Network Jinbonet - byoung-il oh

Nyx McLean, in conversation with Jennifer Radloff,

Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Namita Aavriti and Smita V.

Derechos Digitales  - michel roberto de souza, laura nathalie

association for progressive communications (apc)

hernández rivera and jamila venturini

Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa,

Tecnológico de Monterrey, Berkman Klein Center for Internet

and Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

& Society and Tierra Común; and May First Movement Technology

DW Akademie and Redes por la Diversidad, Equidad

and The Tor Project - paola ricaurte and jacobo nájera

y Sustentabilidad A.C. (REDES A.C.) - adrián lópez angulo,

Malawi  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

adriana veloso meireles, carlos henrique gontijo paulino,

University of Livingstonia, Malawi, and Kwame Nkrumah

david ramírez garcía, maría álvarez malvido, nils brock and vivienne gager

University of Science and Technology, Ghana - donald flywell malanga

Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

and eunice adu boahen

Information and Communication Technologies Syndicate -

Mexico  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

wala ahmed elfadul mohammed, with sidrat elmontaha, mohamed elhassan,

Centro de Investigación en Tecnologías y Saberes Comunitarios -

mohamed said and mukhtar atif elshiekh

carlos f. baca-feldman

Togo  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Mozambique  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

AW Free Foundation  - emmanuel agbenonwossi

Dércio Tsandzana

Tunisia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Nepal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  173

iGmena - hamza ben mehrez

Body & Data and APC  - hvale vale and the body & data team:

Tunisia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

rita baramu, kabita rai, youba rai, shubha kayastha, neha gauchan,

Technoloxia - yosr jouini

sapana sanjeevani, shripa pradhan, anuska sthapit, mahima pradhan,

prasun subedi, pramila shrestha and sj

Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211

Nigeria  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Hun Legal Consultancy - gürkan özturan

African Centre for Climate Actions and Rural Development

Uruguay  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

(ACCARD) - freeman elohor oluowo

Data and Society Lab (Datysoc) - ana karen tuduri cairo

Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

and fabrizio scrollini

Independent - carlos guerrero argote

Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

EsLaRed  - sandra l. benítez u.

Pangea and the eReuse.org initiative - lorena merino,

Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

mireia roura and leandro navarro

Independent researcher - patience shawarira

Preface

Valeria Betancourt (APC)

Several of the fundamental notions we took

The relationship between the local and

for granted as civil society activists have

the global, which has historically driven

been transformed by the COVID-19 pandemic.

and guided the work of the Association for

One of the most profound, for me, is our

Progressive Communications (APC), has

sense of time. It has changed substantially,

taken on even greater significance. But if

and we now live oscillating between the

that is the case, what does it mean for our

dizzying sense of it passing rapidly and

advocacy at both local and global levels?

having to contend with the feeling that it has

What does this mean for us as a network,

been suspended. What impact does this have

as an actor seeking to produce substantial

on the pace of the social changes that we,

transformations at all levels? Did other

as civil society organisations and networks,

forms of collaboration and connection

want to be part of?

emerge in the peripheries during the

The pandemic, which hit us in different

pandemic?

ways in both the online and offline spheres,

These changes have been exacerbated

has also brought us face to face with the

by current overlapping global crises:

tensions between the connected and

setbacks in democratic values; the

the unconnected, the individual and the

weakening of democratic institutions; the

collective, between the contingent and

multiplication of anti-rights forces; the

the predictable, between the rigid and

rise of authoritarianism; the flourishing of

the flexible, between the continuous and

stigmatising narratives; the deterioration of

the conjunctural, the ephemeral and the

the role of states in the provision of public

permanent, and between the local and the

services; the deprioritisation of sustainable

global.

development objectives; and, in general, the

The impacts of digitalisation on the

shrinking of the civic space.

dynamics of our contexts have become

What does this all imply for strengthening

more palpable, as well as the ways those

our advocacy in the midst of an intensified

impacts relate to old and emerging

sense of fragility and volatility when,

structural challenges. The weight of

paradoxically, everything we do and

physical boundaries and awareness of

don’t do will have a decisive bearing on

the limits of the physical space we inhabit

the future? What does this mean in terms

were heightened. We were connected in

of collective action, of activism, of the

a digital space but were demobilised and

movements we work with and are part of

disconnected on other levels, a tension

and the way in which we set goals?

tearing at the social tissue that we took for

There are no simple answers to these

granted.

questions.

Preface / 5

The pandemic made inequality,

be, for our network and organisation, and

discrimination, exclusion and structural

for social movements, the commitment to a

inequity more palpable, and rather than

common horizon of dignity and justice – a

stagnating in indignation, it reactivated

horizon in which digital technologies and

a sense of rebellion and contestation.

an open, decentralised, free internet allow

The strength and sharpness with which

us to sustain other ways of life that are

we connect social justice, gender justice,

compatible with the collective well-being

environmental justice, economic justice

and well-being of our planet.

and racial justice with the potentials

GISWatch 2021-2022 focuses on responses

and limitations of digital technologies is

to some of the fundamental questions

undeniable. Using this intersectional lens,

brought by the pandemic to inform

we need to document and build our own

civil society’s advocacy around digital

narratives about the challenges that we

technology issues and their potential to

face related to the impacts of the pandemic

shape future horizons. As illustrated on our

and reflect on how our advocacy priorities

cover, a sustained struggle will be necessary

as well as the ways we do advocacy are

in the years ahead, but not only in the public

changing and keep being modified and

spaces. A nuanced approach to advocacy

adjusted.

will be essential to open multiple ways to

At APC we have strengthened capacity

bring about positive change.

to design and implement collective and

We hope that this edition ignites renewed

contextual community responses to the

energy to reshape the sense of “us” going

multiple challenges and crises that we

forward towards reinventing the social

face, while having a greater awareness of

contract, recognising and embracing our

the kind of global responses that should

diversity, our multi-referential identities,

be prioritised, based on shared but

our complementarities; and contributes

differentiated responsibilities.

to finding effective ways to think and act

We are in a tremendously complex historical

beyond all the crises and contingencies

moment in which, possibly, the most

that surround us at the moment as actors of

important anchor of meaning continues to

change in the digital environment.

6  /  Global Information Society Watch

Introduction

Valeria Betancourt and Alan Finlay

Many of these are rights that civil society organ-

Association for Progressive Communications (APC)

isations have been advocating for since 2005 – with

some concerns, such as access for poor and margin-

Rebalancing and reimagining our futures

alised communities, stretching back to the origins of

internet advocacy in the 1990s.

In  2005,  at  the  culmination  of  the  second  phase

What then can we learn from this period of “ac-

of  the  World  Summit  on  the  Information  Society

celerated transition”, as one report describes it here?2

(WSIS), civil society organisations clearly stated that

The  purpose  of  this  GISWatch  was  to  ask  two

societies will not be able to advance towards social

fundamental questions:

justice  if  the  development  and  use  of  the  internet

•  How  has  the  COVID-19  pandemic  changed

does not contribute to the strengthening of the ex-

or  shaped  the  ways  in  which  civil  society  or-

ercise of human rights.

ganisations  do  their  advocacy  work  around

The  capabilities  of  digital  technologies  are  a

digital technology-related issues, including dig-

thousand times greater than they were in 2005 and,

ital rights?

although progress has been made, we have not yet

managed to determine the scope of the reinterpret-

•  How  have  internet  rights  advocacy  priorities

ed  vision  of WSIS  that  is  needed  to  respond  to  the

shifted due to the pandemic?

implications of ever-changing digital societies. Never-

It includes a series of thematic reports, dealing with,

theless, we probably thought we were getting closer

among others, emerging issues in advocacy for ac-

to some answers before the COVID-19 pandemic hit

cess,  platformisation,  tech  colonisation  and  the

us, revealing the stark dimensions of digital exclusion

dominance of the private sector, internet regulation

and rights violations across the world.

and  governance,  privacy  and  data,  new  trends  in

With  lockdowns  forcing  more  people  online  for

funding internet advocacy, and building a post-pan-

longer periods of time, alongside the techno-centric,

demic feminist agenda. Alongside these, 36 country

“top-down” interventions adopted by governments,1

and  regional  reports,  the  majority  from  the  global

the  immediate  consequences  of  a  lack  of  digital

South,  all  address  the  two  questions  in  different

rights and meaningful access were for many harsh,

ways, offering some indication of how we can begin

visceral and ubiquitous.

mapping a shifted terrain.

While  many  activists  found  themselves  at  a

Through the lens of the COVID-19 pandemic, the

crossroads – either get online and learn new ways of

reports highlight the different and complex ways in

interacting, or risk being stranded – people without

which democracy and human rights are at risk across

a stable and affordable internet connection were un-

the globe, and illustrate how fundamental meaning-

able to work, or to access education and government

ful  internet  access  is  to  sustainable  development.

services,  including  health  services.  Meanwhile,

While the majority focus on the impact of the pan-

hastily drafted regulations and technologies put to

demic  on  digital  rights  and  access  in  the  global

new use limited people’s right to freedom of expres-

South, the inclusion of reports from countries in the

sion  and  association,  personal  data  security  and

North,  such  as  Canada,  suggests  that  developed

privacy, and freedom from unwarranted surveillance.

countries have not been immune to new threats to

The pandemic also amplified online violence against

freedoms, and that there is a need to address these

both women and children, despite over a decade of

risks collectively with fresh vigour.

work in this area.

2  See the country report on Spain by Pangea and the eReuse.org

1  See Jinbonet’s report on South Korea for an example of this.

initiative.

Introduction / 7

The reports show how advocacy priorities have,

particularly  for  boys,  while,  as  ARTICLE  19  Eastern

on the one hand, stayed the same (a “turning back”

Africa  suggests,  there  was  evidence  of  a  general

or learning from history is necessary), and, on the

increase  in  online  violence  against  children  during

other,  that  they  have  to  be  refocused  to  attend

the  pandemic  in  Kenya  (a  phenomenon  unlikely  to

properly to a subtly or significantly altered terrain.

be isolated).

New fields of advocacy have also been brought to

Other  “old  issues”  that  have  been  to  some  ex-

the fore that civil society organisations need to pay

tent put to one side, such as advocating for free and

better attention to.

open source technologies, need to be reinvigorated

A number of reports show how we (governments,

– albeit, as the Digital Trade Alliance explains, in a

the  private  sector,  civil  society)  have  not  properly

difficult context for open knowledge advocacy given

been  able  to  address  the  question  of  meaningful

the background of the vaccine debate and the failed

internet access for all, nor the impact of gender ine-

TRIPS waiver.

quality on access and the use of the internet. Others

These  advocacy  priorities  occur  in  and  are

deal with comparatively more recent advocacy focus

shaped by a context that has shifted as a result of

areas that are now the mainstay of global advocacy

the  “accelerated  transition”  we  have  experienced.

on digital rights, such as privacy online, surveillance,

As Privacy International and others have indicated,

disinformation and misinformation, artificial intelli-

the  pandemic  has  been  a  significant  boom  for  the

gence, and data rights. Largely within these frames,

private  tech  sector  –  perhaps  unparalleled  in  such

emerging concerns are identified.

a short space of time – both in terms of new users

For  example,  while  the  rights  principles  of  ar-

and the data that can be harvested from them and in

tificial  intelligence  need  to  be  properly  addressed

terms of “instant” partnerships formed with govern-

when shaping policy, there is a need to consider the

ments who anxiously sought to respond to the crisis

newer field of robotic policing and automated nurs-

and ramp up their digitisation processes. With few or

ing.  Although  robotic  policing  has  been  around  for

no checks and balances, and little public transparen-

a number of years – an early example of its misuse

cy on what exactly was being given up while access

occurred in Dallas in the US in 20163 – in Tunisia it

to  health  and  a  safe  environment  was  ostensibly

was introduced during the pandemic with very little

being  secured,  this  has  come  at  a  cost  for  citizens

public consultation, a particular concern given that

(including  the  corporate  surveillance  of  children,

the  robots  helped  enforce  the  country's  lockdown

forced to be online for education).

rules and interfaced  with the public directly. Simi-

Coupled with some governments having to rush

larly, technologies used ostensibly for public benefit

their  own  digitisation  processes  that  were  still  in

– such as contact tracing apps – need to be framed

the  pipeline,  the  pandemic  significantly  boosted

as  “public interest technologies” to make the spec-

the transition to the data-driven society, with more

trum  of  their  rights  implications  more  visible  (see

known about us now than ever before. It is the im-

the  report  by  Tecnológico  de  Monterrey  and  May

plications of this that civil society needs to continue

First Movement Technology).4

to map for its specific advocacy priorities, including

Less  prominent  rights  issues,  such  as  those  of

the need for significant upscaling of data capacity in

remote or hybrid workers (see the report by EsLaRed

the countries of the global South, and the building of

on  Venezuela,  for  instance)  now  need  to  be  fore-

“local data narratives” of resistance.5

grounded in rights discourse, alongside the growing

Many governments across the world have been

support for the rights of gig economy workers.

given  a  fresh  leash  to  tighten  their  grip  on  civic

The same goes for the digital rights of children.

spaces, and in countries like Nigeria there are sug-

The reports show that the impact of digitisation on

gestions that civil society actors have started to leave

children  can  no  longer  be  marginalised  in  main-

the advocacy arena due to the imminent threats they

stream  digital  rights  discussions.  Cooperativa  Sulá

face. India meanwhile faces its own clampdown on

Batsú  discusses  the  negative  effects  of  isolation

civil society organisations, with donors struggling to

and  children  being  online  for  extended  periods,

find ways to fund them.

It was also remarkable how easily governments,

3  Liedtke, M., & Fowler, B. (2016, 9 July). Killer robot used by Dal-

in  a  time  of  emergency,  discarded  public  input  in

las police opens ethical debate.  Phys.org. https://phys.org/

their efforts to find solutions to the immediate crisis

news/2016-07-killer-robot-dallas-police-ethical.html

4  Tecnológico de Monterrey and May First Movement Technology

– at least in the field of technology. While countries

provide in their report an excellent starting point for this

understanding. Meanwhile, Carlos Guerrero Argote worryingly

suggests in his country report on Peru that both civil society and

5  See, for instance, Razzano, G. (2022). Decolonising data. In A. Finlay

funders felt that with many technologies used to manage the virus

(Ed.),  State of the Newsroom  2020. Wits Centre for Journalism.

being discarded by governments over time, they are no longer

https://journalism.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/SON-2020-

worthy of attention.

Final-23-Feb.pdf

8  /  Global Information Society Watch

set  up  expert  advisory  groups  to  understand  the

international convention on cybercrime, which limits

evolution  of  the  pandemic,  when  it  came  to  the

shutdowns,  creating  an  interesting  policy  advocacy

application  of  technology  to  meet  the  new,  urgent

window  of  opportunity  in  that  country.  In  Brazil,  a

needs, this kind of citizen input was largely absent.

victory  in  the  supreme  court  guaranteeing  the  right

A common recommendation in a number of country

to personal data protection has also opened up new

reports  is  to  create  robust  frameworks  for  multi-

advocacy avenues for civil society.

stakeholder  decision  making  and  citizen  oversight

There is also a greater awareness of the real-life

when innovating technological responses to future,

impact of the digital divide – and a fresh impetus to

similar  events.  It  will,  however,  be  worth  tracking

look at new access possibilities or revisit old ones, in-

whether the lack of participation in the development

cluding leveraging universal service funds and rolling

of  technology-driven  responses  to  the  pandemic

out  community  networks.  Issues  to  do  with  privacy

sets  a  precedent  –  particularly  in  light  of  a  signifi-

and surveillance have gained greater visibility among

cantly empowered private sector.

civil society actors working outside the field of digital

Funding priorities also appear to be shifting, and

rights, and no doubt among the public too.

the  longer-term  impact  of  this  is  still  to  be  felt.  As

However, as others have pointed out, the initial

a report in this edition of GISWatch outlines, many

phase of the pandemic created for some a sense of

donors are now more likely to focus on intersection-

global optimism6 – a possibility of a common good

al agendas, where the application of technology or

being forged, even if driven by pragmatism (e.g. in

digital  rights  meets  the  needs  of  other  advocacy

Turkey the government lifted its usual restrictions on

priorities.  Civil  society  organisations  may  need  to

the media temporarily in order to properly inform the

engage  in  direct  advocacy  with  donors  to  ensure

public  about  the  virus).  Initially,  despite  the  shock

that the specific and perhaps unique terrains in dig-

and  uncertainty,  there  was  a  sense  of  relief  that

ital  rights  advocacy  are  not  stripped  of  their  vital

“we were all in this together” and that a collective

resources, even if there is a need to be more specific

response  might  be  possible  to  determine  the  fate

and incisive in setting their advocacy priorities.

of  humanity  and  the  planet  –  a  response  which,

We do not want to suggest that everything went

perhaps,  could  be  felt  in  other  areas  too,  such  as

badly with respect to digital rights and access during

properly addressing climate change.

the pandemic. Reports here also show strong coop-

However,  the  sense  of  optimism  felt  at  the  be-

eration between governments and civil society – for

ginning  of  the  pandemic  was  soon  supplanted  by

instance, in freeing the regulatory space for the roll-

different  kinds  of  opportunism  –  whether  from  the

out of community networks as an emergency access

state, the private sector, or developed countries act-

solution, or in the running of trade union elections

ing in cohort – and it ran aground when confronted

in Benin, with connectivity points set up for workers

with  the  powerful  geopolitical  dynamics  and  align-

who did not have internet. Such an initiative holds

ments holding the “centre” in place, as we saw with

some potential for new forms of hybrid democratic

the  failure  of  the  TRIPS  waiver.  With  economically

participation and multistakeholder collaboration or

weakened  and  unstable  states,  a  stressed  civil  so-

cooperation.

ciety, an increase in global poverty, and the current

Innovative  technological  solutions  for  medical

state  of  geopolitical  imbalance  –  with  one  expres-

purposes  were  also  developed  by  startups  in  the

sion being the war in Ukraine – the ramifications of

private  sector,  universities  and  civil  society  actors,

this opportunism may be felt in the terrain of inter-

while  the  internet  was  used  by  ordinary  people  to

net governance for years to come.

mobilise citizen action and help to provide support

The  question  then  becomes: What  kind  of  pro-

to communities in need. At the grassroots level, civil

cesses  would  contribute  to  restore  a  workable

society organisations experimented with new ways

balance? And what sort of rebalancing is necessary,

of training remotely (see the discussion by DW Akad-

or “push back” is needed?

emie and Redes on Colmena for a good example of

How  do  we  reach  new  agreements  building

this). New advocacy networks were also born when

on the processes that have been carried out in the

grassroots organisations came online, and met oth-

fields  of  internet  policy,  internet  governance  and

er, like-minded organisations for the first time.

global  digital  cooperation,  while  properly  taking

In an effort to inform the public about the pandem-

into account the shifted terrain? What are the con-

ic, the new government in the Democratic Republic of

Congo did not resort to internet shutdowns to combat

ditions that need to be in place to reach outcomes

disinformation as had been done in the past, instead

that balance the differences in power of contending

putting its faith in supporting fact-checking organisa-

6  See, for instance, “Rerouting geopolitics” by Alison Gillwald

tions. In the process it stated its intention to ratify the

(publication forthcoming).

Introduction / 9

parties and the multiplicity of interests? How do we

And, as these reports suggest, in all regions of

operationalise  global  digital  cooperation,  and  how

the  world,  including  in  the  global  North,  there  is  a

do  we  translate  it  to  regional  and  local  spheres,

need for a fresh impetus towards movement building,

bridging  the  gap  between  deliberative  spaces  and

working  across  civil  society,  and  including  organi-

decision-making processes?

sations that may not have taken digital rights as a

Over the past two years, a number of initiatives

priority before. This is necessary not only to address

have emerged in the ecosystem of internet govern-

the shrinking of civic space, but also to collectively

ance and global digital cooperation aimed, in large

challenge the new geopolitical and economic power

part, at outlining the characteristics of a digital fu-

dynamics that are refracted in the digital sphere.

ture. These include the Global Digital Compact,7 and

Any push back requires most of all imagination –

other relevant processes that are around the corner,

of how things can be done differently. As the Centro

such as the WSIS+20 review.8

de Investigación en Tecnologías y Saberes Comuni-

But still more needs to be done. There remains

tarios put it in their country report on Mexico, part

an  urgent  need  for  regional  and  global  responses

of the access challenge in that country is that “the

arising from true – and significantly strengthened –

imagination  and  understanding  of  the  problem  by

multilevel,  multidisciplinary  and  multistakeholder

policy makers have not gone beyond the unsuccess-

collaboration,  based  on  the  principles  of  inclusive-

ful  strategies  that  have  been  already  developed.”

ness, transparency and shared responsibility. These

How  this  reimagining  of  possibilities  can  be  intro-

need  to  recognise  that  different  contexts  and  im-

duced into spaces for deliberation and policy making

pacts require differentiated and specific responses,

and inform the new movement building that needs to

including public policy interventions.

take place, is up to us, as civil society actors.

7  https://www.un.org/techenvoy/global-digital-compact

8  Souter, D. (2020, 6 July). Inside the Digital Society: WSIS+20

is closer than you think.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/blog/

inside-digital-society-wsis20-closer-you-think

10  /  Global Information Society Watch

Thematic reports

Introduction / 11

Advocacy for community-led connectivity access

in the global South

Kathleen Diga, Cynthia el Khoury, Michael Jensen, Carlos

Secondly,  as  a  result  of  communities  and  nations

Rey-Moreno and Débora Prado

being  locked  down  due  to  the  pandemic,  the  re-

Local Networks (LocNet) Initiative, APC

port details two follow-up actions which supported

https://www.apc.org/en/node/35376

national governments with innovative regulation to

legitimise local actors providing connectivity and to

Introduction

provide support to community network partners who

are  contending  with  substantial  communications

Since  the  start  of  the  pandemic,  there  has  been

and  connectivity  demands  in  their  regions. Thirdly,

a  strong  revival  of  interest  in  digital  rights,  espe-

the pandemic led to a need for more inward reflec-

cially  with  respect  to  ensuring  that  everyone  has

tion by the LocNet team on advocacy for local access

internet  access.  The  increase  in  internet  traffic  re-

in the future. Specifically, what does it mean to move

corded  across  the  world,  caused  by  those  working

from  originally  trying  to  broadly  address  universal

from home and children taking school lessons from

services,  or  “connecting  the  unconnected”,  to  an

their  place  of  residence,  is  no  doubt  part  of  this

understanding of “meaningful connectivity” coming

revival.1  However,  COVID-19  also  highlighted  that

from a community-led perspective? Finally, the chap-

home internet is not the norm; there still remains a

ter closes off with what is next in terms of advocacy

large  majority  of  people  residing  in  low-income  or

for community-led access.

unserved areas without any connectivity, or expen-

sive mobile bundles as their only option. As a result,

Pre-pandemic advocacy activities

advocates  have  raised  their  voices  regarding  con-

The  pandemic  has  made  many  of  the  structural  in-

nectivity being a priority for all countries that must

equalities  that  exist  throughout  the  world  clearly

be achieved universally to ensure that no one is left

visible, but even more so in the global South. Prior

behind.2

to  the  pandemic,  the  LocNet  team  and  the  original

This thematic report walks through three stages

12  affiliated  peers/partners  were  advantageously

of  work  completed  by  the  Local  Networks  (LocNet)

placed  to  start  looking  at  local  access  challenges

initiative,3  focusing  on  advocacy  for  community

and the opportunities to learn and exchange ideas

access,  under  the  project  name  “connecting  the

on  how  to  accompany  locally  led  connectivity  pro-

unconnected”.  Firstly,  two  pre-pandemic  actions

cesses.4 The team was already developing a holistic

within LocNet helped to set the groundwork, mainly

approach to advocacy that would lead to the success

around international policy advocacy and direct sup-

of community-led initiatives, and had developed five

port for community-led action for local connectivity.

areas of work.5 In late 2018, advocacy would come

from  at  least  two  salient  strategies:  1)  tackling  the

lack  of  awareness  among  policy  makers  and  regu-

1  OECD. (2020).  Keeping the Internet up and running in times of

crisis. https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/

lators, and developing a shared language for them

keeping-the-internet-up-and-running-in-times-of-crisis-4017c4c9

around complementary connectivity models, and 2)

2  La Rue, F. (2011).  Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion

having solid community-led cases by on-the-ground

and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression,

Frank La Rue. United Nations Human Rights Council. https://

partners or champions which demonstrably provided

www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.

HRC.17.27_en.pdf

3  The Local Networks (LocNet) initiative is a collective effort led by

4  https://www.apc.org/en/node/35438

APC and Rhizomatica in partnership with people and organisations

5  These five areas of work were defined in the following “work

in the global South to directly support community networks and

packages”: Work Package 1: Peer Learning Exchange, Work Package

to contribute to an enabling ecosystem for their emergence and

2: Learning and Capacity Building, Work Package 3: Enabling

growth. Community networks cultivate bottom-up, sustainable

Policy and Regulation, Work Package 4: Innovation, Technology

approaches to communication technology and meaningful

and Sustainability, and Work Package 5: Gender and Women’s

connectivity that strengthen autonomy and self-determination.

Participation. https://www.apc.org/en/node/35376

12  /  Global Information Society Watch

an alternative to traditional approaches to connec-

Africa,  Asia  and  Latin  America.11  Regional  training

tivity.  In  many  cases,  pre-COVID  advocacy  in  these

through  specific  regional  telecommunication  bod-

two areas were foundations to supporting commu-

ies worked towards the much-needed effort to bring

nity-led connectivity opportunities at the start of the

understanding  of  what  was  possible  beyond  tradi-

pandemic.

tional  telecommunications  provision  that  favours

corporate national internet service providers (ISPs)

Community network policy awareness

and  mobile  operators.  Beyond  training,  the  LocNet

and shared language

policy team were also consistently monitoring pub-

Prior to 2020, there were major gains around aware-

lic  consultations  around  telecommunications,  and

ness  raising  for  complementary  models  of  internet

when  there  was  a  request  for  public  consultation,

access  within  international  policy  and  regulatory

the  team  would  mobilise  and  react  promptly  with

spaces.  Specifically,  there  were  several  like-mind-

other local civil society organisations to ensure time-

ed groups which prepared the groundwork through

ly submissions.12

the  International  Telecommunication  Union  (ITU),6

the African Union Commission,7 the United Nations

Champions in community networks

Commission on Science and Technology8 and other

In addition to policy advocacy, up to the beginning of

forums  to  ensure  inclusion  of  policy  language  that

2020, there was a growing group of local grassroots

was acceptable and amenable to currently excluded

institutions working on community mobilisation and

local operators such as community networks wish-

creating  “proof  of  concept”  on-the-ground  models

ing to provide service in areas that mobile operators

of  community  networks.  These  “champions”  were

were not reaching. Persistent presence at the inter-

able  to  meet  each  other  and  exchange  knowledge

national  meetings  and  consistent  contributions  in

of their work through LocNet learning opportunities

study  groups  and  council  working  groups,  among

and  other  regional  meet-ups.  Specifically,  before

others,  were  necessary  advocacy  activities,  espe-

2020,  there  were  advocacy  activities  to  research13

cially  when  met  with  moments  of  rejection  to  the

and document14 what existed in the community net-

community  network  concept.9 The  inclusion  of  lan-

works space. In linking some of these global South

guage  in  policies  that  enable  community  networks

groups,  further  learning  spaces  allowed  for  small

became  foundational  references  for  civil  society  to

and medium-sized enterprises or non-profit groups

advocate  at  the  regional  or  national  levels  for  the

to physically visit each community network site and

inclusion  of  the  same  policy  language  to  enable

exchange  lessons  on  processes  of  community-led

complementary telecommunications provision.

change and providing connectivity services.15

Yet even with the introduction of language sup-

Through  the  above,  many  community  network

portive  of  community  networks  in  policy  spaces,

champions can now offer remarkable case studies,16

awareness  levels  were  still  at  nascent  stages  for

and  advocate  and  meet  the  demand  for  locally  led

many national and local government officials. There-

communications  initiatives,  particularly  in  rural

fore, a substantial effort was made to describe this

areas  and  where  other  barriers  to  entry  are  high.

new lens for telecommunications,10 as well as work-

The LocNet team’s work with local partners was to

ing  with  individual  countries  and  regions  to  create

amplify  their  case  studies  and  find  opportunities

policy-relevant  training  content,  and  to  provide

to engage in close dialogue with other like-minded

awareness-raising  workshops  for  policy  makers  in

stakeholders,  demonstrating  both  the  successes

and  challenges  of  the  community  network  model.

From the policy perspective, these case studies were

6  The implementation of Recommendation 19 from ITU-D for the

shared by the LocNet policy team and accompanying

Americas region: https://policy.communitynetworks.group/

international-organisations/start#wtdc-17

grassroots partners together at various levels of gov-

7  Specialized Technical Committee on Communications

ernment  to  showcase  the  communication  needs  of

and Information Technologies (STC-CICT) from the African

local rural citizens. The ongoing dialogue and advo-

Union: https://policy.communitynetworks.group/

international-organisations/start#african_union_commission

cacy shows civil society commitment to processes of

8  United Nations Commission on Science and Technology

for Development work in 2019 and 2020: https://policy.

communitynetworks.group/international-organisations/

11  https://2016-2019report.apc.org/2016-2019.html

start#cstd-19

12  Ibid.

9  https://policy.communitynetworks.group/

international-organisations/start#itu_plenipotentiary_conference

13  https://www.apc.org/en/node/34231

10  Song, S., Rey-Moreno, C., & Jensen, M. (2019).  Innovations in

14  See, for example, Finlay, A. (Ed.). (2018).  Global Information Society

Spectrum Management: Enabling community networks and small

Watch 2018: Community networks. APC & IDRC. https://giswatch.

operators to connect the unconnected. Internet Society & APC.

org/community-networks

https://www.apc.org/en/pubs/innovations-spectrum-management-

15  https://www.apc.org/en/node/35438

enabling-community-networks-and-small-operators-connect

16  https://www.apc.org/en/tags/cn-stories

Thematic reports / 13

changing national universal access policy, including

took  the  opportunity  to  re-open  the  topic  of  access

the  revision  of  costly  licensing  processes  for  local

and,  in  some  cases,  implemented  alternatives  for

operators.

underserved  regions.  Recommendations  were  sent

The LocNet team and partners worked on these

to governments on ways to enable local operators.17

advocacy  strategies,  which  led  to  three  outcomes:

Due  to  the  pre-pandemic  advocacy  that  the  LocNet

1) raised awareness of community-led efforts with-

initiative and others had conducted, some initial poli-

in  policy  circles,  2)  a  shared  understanding  and

cy dialogue inroads with governments were possible.

exchange  among  like-minded  community  network

There was some recognition that community network

champions  to  meet  and  learn  together,  and  3)  a

models  were  propagating  and  that  national  policy

greater  awareness  of  success  stories  and  the  de-

implementers  would  not  have  to  start  from  scratch.

velopment  of  specific  community-led  models  to

In  some  cases,  community  networks  also  took  this

showcase widely. These outcomes presented many

opportunity  to  meet  with  governments  to  showcase

possibilities to make connectivity alternatives more

their  community  network  model.  They  voiced  their

viable, should grassroots groups be given a chance.

challenges  in  their  work  on  local  connectivity  and

how  it  needs  policy  space  and  licence  exemption  if

Priorities of access during the pandemic

the model is to expand to further underserved areas.

After  mid-2020,  the  two  enabling  advocacy  strat-

Several  national  governments,  such  as  Zim-

egies  that  were  established  before  the  pandemic

babwe,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Indonesia  and

– international policy recognition and the identifica-

Kenya,  made  revisions  or  new  provisions  within

tion of and exchange among local champions – were

their  policies,  finding  ways  in  which  to  legitimise

in  full  swing.  Within  the  greater  drive  globally  for

the existence of small operators to provide telecom-

accelerating  connectivity,  this  was  an  opportune

munication services to unconnected or underserved

moment  to  go  to  the  next  level  of  advocacy  for  lo-

communities.  Kenya  enacted  the  community

cal  connectivity  access.  During  the  pandemic,  the

network licence framework.18 Although Brazil’s reg-

LocNet  team  found  themselves  moving  to  a  dual

ulator  acknowledged  community  networks  in  early

advocacy stage of accompanying national-level pol-

2020,19 dissemination and sensitisation of the policy

icy  framework  development  and  the  subsequent

had to occur in order to popularise and educate peo-

operationalisation  of  policy,  and  accelerating  local

ple  about  the  licence  change. The  LocNet  initiative

community network efforts. Several national govern-

offered  technical  assistance  to  the  Brazilian  tele-

ment  entities  had  previously  engaged  in  dialogue

com regulator Anatel to bring stakeholders together

with local partners or the LocNet team around pol-

through  dialogue,20  and  in  creating  a  policy  brief21

icy  changes  or  participated  in  awareness  training

and  accessible  public  information  to  accompany

on community networks. Due to COVID-19, pressure

the policy work.22 A strong champion of community

was mounting to help citizens to get connected. The

next steps for many of the governments concerned

was  getting  appropriate  language  into  national

17  APC, Redes A.C., & Universidad Politécnica de Catalunya.

directives or policy documents, as well as operation-

(2020).  Expanding the telecommunications operators

ecosystem: Policy and regulatory guidelines to enable

alising appropriate policy to support resource-poor

local operators. https://www.apc.org/sites/default/files/

regions  in  their  efforts  towards  digital  inclusion.

APC_R1_ExpandingTelecommunication_OK.pdf

With  regard  to  communities,  existing  community

18  Kivuva, M. (2021, 9 November). Kenya adopts the community

network models now had further demand and back-

networks licensing framework.  KICTANet. https://www.kictanet.

or.ke/kenya-ratifies-the-community-networks-licensing-framework

ing from their communities, and they now needed to

19  Kopp, M. (2020, 29 June). Brazil acknowledges community networks

find ways in which to ensure their work could follow

as viable option for connectivity.  APCNews. https://www.apc.org/

through by ensuring consistent communications for

en/news/brazil-acknowledges-community-networks-viable-option-

connectivity

their users, allowing them to stay informed of health

20  APCNews. (2021, 28 October). Multistakeholder collaboration to

information, stay in touch with family and relatives,

build an enabling environment for community networks in Brazil.

and access some form of education and training for

APCNews. https://www.apc.org/en/news/multistakeholder-

collaboration-build-enabling-environment-community-networks-

their home-bound children.

brazil

21  Labardini Inzunza, A., & Zanolli, B. (2021).  Policy brief and

Revival of digital rights and access

recommendations for an enabling environment for community

networks in Brazil. APC. https://www.apc.org/en/pubs/policy-brief-

in policy spaces

and-recommendations-enabling-environment-community-networks-

At the start of the pandemic, the lockdowns made clear

brazil

22  Kassouwi, I. K. (2022, 31 May). Zimbabwe unveils plans to facilitate

that there was a pressing need to expand connectiv-

digital communication with community networks.  Ecofin Agency.

ity.  As  citizens  became  more  vocal  about  their  right

https://www.ecofinagency.com/telecom/3105-43638-zimbabwe-

to  communicate  digitally,  some  policy  stakeholders

unveils-plans-to-facilitate-digital-communication-with-community-

networks

14  /  Global Information Society Watch

networks  and  our  advocacy  partner  in  Zimbabwe,

partners found their models put into intensive prac-

Murambinda Works, demonstrated its efforts to the

tice and use, largely based on citizen-driven needs.

government,23  and  the  Zimbabwe  telecom  regula-

In  order  to  ensure  their  work  was  recognised  and

tor (POTRAZ) has now made plans for a community

amplified, their stories were shared and document-

network rollout in each province. Uganda rolled out

ed through blogs26 and short videos,27 and used as

their new communal access service provider or net-

materials  to  advocate  among  civil  society  groups

work  operator  licences  in  2020.24  Argentina  also

as well as to governments who were still unfamiliar

benefited from strong local advocacy by AlterMundi

with the community network option. The same local

and others, seeing legislation adopted for the use of

community network builders have also gone further

Universal Service Funds to resource community net-

to develop a national training programme – the Na-

works  in  underserved  communities,  both  rural  and

tional  School  for  Community  Networks,  which  has

urban.  In  Indonesia,  partners  have  now  identified

started  in  five  countries28  –  as  more  neighbouring

an  entry  point  for  local  internet  provision  through

communities  requested  assistance  for  connectivity

the decentralised village fund mechanisms enacted

in their regions.

by the Ministry of Villages. Common Room Network

While  not  all  civic  advocacy  and  policy  work

Foundation,  along  with  its  wide  range  of  ICT  part-

can  be  attributed  to  the  LocNet  initiative,  all  of

ners, is now working with local groups to explore the

these examples are due to efforts by local activists

fund’s possibility.

and  advocacy  sustaining  ongoing  dialogue  with

The greater demand for connectivity by and for

governments – now, when the time has been most

the  underserved  and  the  willingness  of  some  gov-

opportune, the policy changes have taken place with

ernments  to  consider  and  exchange  information

tremendous  results  in  favour  of  community-driven

about complementary ways for communities to de-

networks.

velop their own connectivity pathways is reflected in

these recent policy changes.

Reflections on the experiences of “connecting

the unconnected”

Higher demand for local connectivity

As the dual advocacy strategies – fostering enabling

At the local level, community network partners were

policy,  and  accompanying  locally  driven  communi-

approached by their neighbouring communities, who

ty  network  champions  –  started  to  gain  significant

now needed to be connected to the internet – many

traction during the pandemic, the LocNet team also

were looking for a service with adequate connectivity

reflected  on  its  initial  2018  assumptions.  These

speeds so that their children could be online during

assumptions  were  developed  as  a  project  that

the  lockdowns.  This  created  a  special  opportunity

responded  to  the  needs  for  universal  service  by

to expand their work on enabling rural connectivity.

“connecting  the  unconnected”,  but  from  a  holistic

The  challenge  saw  local  partners  increase  their  in-

and community-driven perspective.29

ternet provision capacity, including looking into how

Much has changed since the start of 2018. The

to improve the quality of their services. How to make

greater  demands  in  local  connectivity  during  the

these  changes  surfaced  after  much  self-reflection,

pandemic  meant  that  some  governments  have

including considerations of where to hone in on in-

put  in  place  “community  network-friendly”  policy

stitutional strengthening efforts.

directives,  and  now  have  the  challenge  of  opera-

Because  of  their  holistic  nature,  community

tionalising their new policy. Also, citizens who now

networks are usually not limited to the connectivity

use community network connectivity have integrat-

space – rather, they are integrated with other needs

ed the internet better into their lives, creating new

of the community. During COVID-19, this was evident

expectations  of  connectivity  speeds  or  quality  as

from  community  network  partners  participating  in

well as thinking beyond the connection as to what

local  emergency-driven  solutions  to  support  each

value-driven  needs  can  be  met  by  the  community

other.25  As  a  result,  particular  local  or  civil  society

networks.

23  APCNews. (2022, 20 April). Murambinda Community Network and

the Integral Kumusha: “We feel we’re creating a movement that

26  https://www.apc.org/en/tags/cn-stories

will be unstoppable”.  APCNews. https://www.apc.org/en/news/

27  https://www.apc.org/en/routingforcommunities

murambinda-community-network-and-integral-kumusha-we-feel-

28  APCNews. (2022, 26 May). Meet the national schools empowering

were-creating-movement-will-be

grassroots communities to bridge the digital divide.  APCNews.

24  https://www.ucc.co.ug/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/

https://www.apc.org/en/blog/meet-national-schools-empowering-

COMMUNAL-ACCESS-PROVIDER-LICENSE-25-05-2020.pdf

grassroots-communities-bridge-digital-divide

25  APC & Rhizomatica. (2020, 22 May). Beyond Connectivity:

29  https://www.apc.org/en/project/connecting-unconnected-

Networks of Care.  MediaNama. https://www.medianama.

supporting-community-networks-and-other-community-based-

com/2020/05/223-beyond-connectivity-networks-of-care

connectivity

Thematic reports / 15

As  citizens  are  a  part  of  their  local  communi-

initial  connectivity.  For  example,  some  are  using

ty  networks,  and  community  networks  are  not  just

the  community  network  to  support  seed  preser-

about  connectivity,  but  about  nurturing  broader

vation  through  knowledge  of  these  techniques

community participation and cooperation, there has

being digitised and archived;31 creating or tweaking

been  further  consideration  of  the  possibilities  of

community-owned and context-appropriate technol-

leveraging the positive changes gained for local or

ogies32  and  services;33  bringing  local  e-commerce

social  development.  This  evolution  in  thinking  has

services  to  rural  citizens;  creating  Indigenous,  lan-

come from the last five years of accompanying local

guage-diverse educational content for rural schools;

community  network  processes.  It  is  also  moulding

and  using  connectivity  to  link  bottom-up  local  ac-

the way the LocNet team will be thinking about the

tions  for  their  well-being  and  increased  meaning

possible futures or next steps that would move for-

in  their  own  lives.  These  local  and  participatory

ward  participatory  or  community-based  processes

activities, which were reignited due to the communi-

to meet unserved communication needs.

ty-initiated model of connectivity, have seen positive

This is where we see a point of evolution for

effects  on  social  cohesion,  strengthening  the  con-

debate. As connected communities become accus-

nection  among  people,  and  the  creation  of  local

tomed  to  a  particular  level  of  connectivity,  there

value. But this has also raised community concerns

is a rise in expectations of the quality of service,

of digital safety and privacy.

etc. What level of digital services will local com-

One angle to explore which has some resonance

munity  members  manage  to  maintain,  given  the

with  the  value-driven  and  social  responsiveness

structural  issues  they  deal  with  in  their  day-to-

of  community  networks  is  the  concept  of  “mean-

day  lives?  This  includes  embedding  connectivity

ingful  access”  or  “meaningful  connectivity”.  At  a

within  the  absence  of  consistent  energy  supply,

global level, meaningful connectivity has been de-

paved roads, schools and living standards. What

fined  as  “a  level  of  connectivity  that  allows  users

partnerships  would  be  appropriate  to  strike  the

to have a safe, satisfying, enriching and productive

right balance of community involvement and net-

online  experience  at  an  affordable  cost.”34  Within

work stability and quality?

this  definition,  there  are  measurable  targets  for

The  LocNet  team  has  learned  over  time  that

the enabling drivers of infrastructure, affordability,

community networks can be embedded within sus-

access  to  devices,  skills,  and  security  and  safety,

tainable  and  participatory  civic  action,  which  goes

that  can  inform  whether  one  moves  from  no  use

beyond  connectivity  and  engages  in  local  econom-

to basic use, or skill to advanced quality of use.35

ic  activities  that  are  socially  aware,  gender  aware

Yet does this definition and its quantitative targets

and environmentally aware.30 The ability to sustain

sufficiently fulfil or cover the local or lived experi-

activities  locally  can  be  informed  by  the  need  to

ences of community-led initiatives that have been

recognise  and  support  the  commitment  of  mutual

observed in the five years of the LocNet initiative?

support groups or collectives to rebuild a thriving ru-

Do they sufficiently account for making connectiv-

ral community and ultimately restore humanity and

ity meaningful? In other words, how do we define

the dignity of life. Again, what are the responsibili-

meaningful  connectivity  from  a  community-driven

ties of partners towards this localised future?

or participatory perspective?

In  this  respect,  in  the  LocNet  initiative,  suffi-

The  LocNet  team  is  taking  time  to  unpack

cient momentum has been reached for some of the

this  idea  so  that  it  can  inform  and  contribute  to

community network partners in the “connecting the

an  alternative  future,  one  that  can  address  the

unconnected”  project  to  carry  forward  their  plans

on-the-ground  realities  and  emergent  needs  for

of  either  strengthening  their  institutional  capacity

community networks and the people who live in the

to  accompany  communities  or  to  help  to  meet  the

communication needs of the communities. The net-

31  https://videos.apc.org/u/apc/m/indigenous-communities-

work  has  gained  experience  and  understanding,

charting-their-journey-through-the-community-network-way/

and  as  partners  mature  one  can  see  their  internet

32  https://videos.apc.org/u/apc/m/bamboo-tower-for-community-

services  stabilise,  and  community  members  begin

networks-coolab-and-portal-sem-porteiras-brazil/

to realise the value-added services that go beyond

33  https://videos.apc.org/u/apc/m/

jxah-wejxia-fortaleciendo-nuestra-comunicacion

34  Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology &

International Telecommunication Union. (2022).  Achieving

30  “Connecting the Unconnected” project team. (2020). Community

universal and meaningful digital connectivity: Setting a

networks: A people – and environment – centred approach to

baseline and targets for 2030. https://www.itu.int/itu-d/

connectivity. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  Global Information Society Watch

meetings/statistics/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2022/04/

2020: Technology, the environment and a sustainable world:

UniversalMeaningfulDigitalConnectivityTargets2030_

Responses from the global South. APC. https://giswatch.org/

BackgroundPaper.pdf

node/6238

35  Ibid.

16  /  Global Information Society Watch

communities  they  connect.  Ultimately,  communi-

policies  remain  unable  to  bring  other  comple-

ty  connectivity  creates  an  impetus  to  reinvigorate

mentary providers to underserved communities.

local and participatory action that unites the com-

Therefore  there  is  a  need  for  ongoing  outreach

munity,  bringing  people  closer  together  so  that

to potential allies and partners who are willing

they can better face the times ahead.

to  work  together  in  advocating  for  policy  that

enables  community  networks.  There  remains  a

What next?

need  for  dedicated  advocacy  calls  for  reforms

COVID-19  dramatically  highlighted  the  digital  di-

to policy and regulation that could help to facili-

vide and accelerated the efforts of civil society and

tate the emergence of local network operators in

governments  to  take  unprecedented  steps  to  im-

specific “high potential” countries. This includes

prove  policy  directives  for  communities  to  be  able

developing  research  on  the  possibilities  for

to be connected. Advocacy for local access through

community-led  connectivity  in  these  countries

community-led means has succeeded in some coun-

and  hopefully  accompanying  any  local  champi-

tries, and, as a result, certain policy measures have

ons.  The  LocNet  team  will  continue  its  holistic

legitimised  the  operation  of  community  networks.

form  of  advocacy,  working  at  the  intersection

Yet  there  is  a  threat  that  these  opportunities  are

of  international  and  national  policy  and  the  lo-

not  taken  up  on  a  large  scale  by  local  communi-

cal  community,  creating  specific  policy  briefs

ties. What may be the cause? Are there still barriers

that share impact through evidence-based case

to entry, such as technical barriers? Is there a lack

studies.

of awareness or bureaucracy issues that get in the

•   Sustainability  of  local  efforts:  What  remains

way?  Perhaps  there  is  an  issue  of  trust?  With  the

is  how  the  existing  community  networks  who

new policy momentum behind community networks,

mature  in  their  connectivity  provision  can  find

governments  are  now  keen  to  see  their  legislation

ways to advance their sustainability models. The

produce positive results. If they don’t see these re-

pandemic has meant that many, especially those

sults,  it  may  leave  the  civil  society  movement  for

working with rural communities, are in a fragile

local access high and dry.

condition. Rising inflation and the high costs of

Some steps forward to consider include:

living post-COVID-19 will not help this. Yet, at the

•   Documenting  best  practices:  As  community

same time, it is clear that community networks

network  builders  and  civil  society  groups  are

can  address  the  increasing  demand  by  citizens

actively  trying  to  operationalise  the  new  policy

for local communication, which will come as fuel

opportunities,  there  are  practical lessons  to  be

costs rise and travel becomes less and less pos-

learned  by  others.  While  the  policies  are  good

sible. In these cases, there is a need for ongoing

on paper, there are indications that civil society

awareness raising of their work, finding the right

groups are not taking up the new opportunities,

communication  mechanisms  for  sharing  local

such  as  applying  for  social  purpose  licences  in

demands  and  identifying  complementary  part-

the  new  legislation  regimes  allowing  this.  The

nerships and/or support. As local access is not

reasons for this are partly practical. From initial

going  away  anytime  soon,  groups  are  also  col-

observations,  local  groups  appear  to  be  strug-

laborating  to  research  the  variety  of  financial

gling  to  fill  out  the  appropriate  administrative

mechanisms  for  community-driven  initiatives36

paperwork  and,  in  many  cases,  require  help

and  finding  ways  in  which  their  work  could  be

from  a  third  party  to  complete  the  forms.  It  is

better  articulated  to  would-be  funders,  and

important  for  the  movement  to  document  their

thereby  helping  community  network  partners

learnings  in  cases  such  as  applying  for  social

find  the  means  to  help  communities  continue

purpose licences and share lessons with others

their outstanding work.

in the movement, as well as to provide feedback

to the government to show ways in which to im-

prove its procedures for operationalising policy.

This  documentation  –  which  should  also  cover

other practical aspects of developing community

networks – will also help to further develop the

future  narrative  of  the  evolution  of  community

networks beyond connectivity.

•   Ongoing  national  level  advocacy:  While  we

have seen headway in some countries, the ma-

jority  of  current  national  telecommunication

36  https://connecthumanity.fund/ntoreport

Thematic reports / 17

Another look at internet regulation:

Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic

J. Carlos Lara and Jamila Venturini

quickly normalised, and allowed Big Tech and local

Derechos Digitales

startups  to  gain  space  to  promote  their  business-

https://derechosdigitales.org

es. What they found were outdated or non-existing

rules,  overloaded  or  precarious  supervisory  insti-

tutions and a generally techno-optimistic – tending

Pushed into the digital realm

to  techno-solutionist  –  environment  that  allowed

Between techno-authoritarianism

their quick advance in vastly different areas. It was

and techno-solutionism

an environment that also lacked sufficient space for

participation in decision making and did not put in

The  COVID-19  pandemic  reached  several  countries

place due safeguards against eventual abuses.

in Latin America in the middle of a complex political

context.  Bolivia  was  under  an  interim  government,

Privatised monitoring and control

after the president resigned following large demon-

As  the  pandemic  advanced  throughout  the  world

strations  that  questioned  the  electoral  process  at

and  isolation  measures  were  adopted  to  contain

the end of 2019. Chile was about to settle a new so-

its spread, digital technologies became key to gov-

cial consensus as a result of months of protests that

ernments’  responses  at  different  levels  of  policy

questioned  the  neoliberal  foundations  of  its  state.

making.  As  cases  started  to  increase,  partnerships

Ecuador was also leaving a process of strong social

with  telecommunications  companies  were  quickly

unrest,  while  in  Colombia  there  had  been  months

announced to monitor compliance with quarantines

of protests after a large strike in November 2019. In

through  heat  maps  that  allowed  governments  to

all these cases, evidence of human rights violations

understand patterns of mobility. However, these in-

and  state  abuses  generated  concerns  throughout

itiatives did not provide information on which types

the  region  and  among  international  authorities.  A

of  data  were  being  shared  and  under  what  condi-

similar situation happened in Brazil where, after one

tions.  Companies  specialised  in  geolocation  were

year into the mandate of the far-right Jair Bolsona-

also involved in this type of early initiative to monitor

ro, violence, harassment and attempts to criminalise

and control cases.1

media  workers,  human  rights  defenders  and  civil

Replicating strategies implemented in the glob-

society organisations became the norm. Similar sce-

al North, a second wave of initiatives involved the

narios were advancing in El Salvador and Mexico.

launch  of  so-called  “CoronaApps”:  usually  mobile

And  then  the  pandemic  struck  the  whole  world.

applications or chatbots – sometimes accompanied

While  it  brought  legitimate  urgent  needs  to  secure

by web-based portals – that promised to deliver re-

people’s  access  to  vital  services  in  a  safe  manner,

liable information to the public and to support the

from the start it was also used in many countries as an

monitoring of cases and the patterns of population

excuse for limiting fundamental rights such as access

mobility during periods of social isolation, as well

to information, freedom of expression and assembly,

as to improve offline contact tracing practices with

and privacy. Decrees criminalising legitimate speech,

online exposure alerts. These apps were launched

limiting  existing  obligations  on  access  to  public

in a decentralised and disorganised manner in sev-

information  by  governments,  and  authorising  sensi-

eral  countries  by  public  and  private  actors  and  at

tive  information  sharing  between  public  and  private

parties  without  further  safeguards  or  transparency

measures, demanded quick responses from civil soci-

1  For some examples from Brazil, see: Venturini, J., & Souza, J. (2020).

Tecnologias e Covid-19 no Brasil: vigilância e desigualdade social

ety organisations and human rights authorities.

na periferia do capitalism. Heinrich Böll Foundation. https://

At the same time, an impulse towards the digiti-

br.boell.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/Tecnologias%20e%20

sation of daily activities during isolation periods was

Covid-19%20no%20Brasil%20vigil%C3%A2ncia%20e%20desigual-

dade%20social%20na%20periferia%20do%20capitalismo.pdf

18  /  Global Information Society Watch

different  administration  levels  –  municipal,  state

When it comes to digital or “electronic” govern-

and national.

ment, until 2018, most Latin American countries had

Most  of  these  initiatives  were  based  on  pub-

a medium index of development.6 The lack of read-

lic-private  agreements  and  required  the  collection

iness  to  respond  to  the  pandemic  became  evident

and  processing  of  large  amounts  of  personal  and

from  the  beginning,  and  the  difficult  monitoring  of

sensitive  data.  However,  they  were  generally  not

cases  and  deaths  was  a  challenge  that,  together

preceded by human rights or privacy impact assess-

with  other  factors,  prevented  an  efficient  response

ments, or launched together with clear information

in some countries. Trust in data from private parties

on the conditions and limits for the use of data by

and in the voluntary use of apps by citizens was nec-

third parties. On the contrary, in several cases, ex-

essary  for  policy  making,  as  well  as  independent

ception measures were approved to allow their use.2

citizen, academic or media monitoring.

Since,  in  general,  independent  evaluation  or

Pre-existing  or  newly  implemented  restrictions

monitoring was not an aspect of these initiatives, it

on  citizens’  access  to  information  contributed  to

is  difficult  to  know  the  role  they  had  in  containing

disinformation.7 In some cases, like Brazil, political

the spread of the pandemic. In any case, as human

polarisation  on  the  pandemic  fostered  by  the  na-

rights authorities have pointed out, they should have

tional  government  led  to  constant  changes  in  the

gone  through  an  assessment  of  legality,  necessity

methods for monitoring the evolution of the virus in

and proportionality.3 In Latin America, the incipient

the country and, as a consequence, generated dis-

adoption of mobile apps, ranging from 0.5% to 22%

trust in official information. In December 2021, while

in  December  2020,  indicates  a  lack  of  contextu-

the number of cases began to increase again in the

alisation  of  solutions  imported  from  abroad  and

world, an attack on the Brazilian Ministry of Health

presented as efficient tools. This particularly affect-

systems  left  the  country  without  updated  informa-

ed the exposure notification function incorporated in

tion on the evolution of the pandemic for more than

some of the apps, which was highly dependent on

a month.8

widespread use, something affected by several fac-

Despite  the  context  of  persisting  inequalities

tors, including digital divides.4

and  unpreparedness,  decision  makers  rushed  to

promote  poorly  designed  tech-based  solutions,

A future for everyone?

leaving thousands of people behind. An illustrative

Persisting digital divides and the lack of underlying

example  is  the  one  of  education:  without  previous

digital  infrastructures  did  not  prevent  tech-based

studies or concrete measures to mitigate digital di-

responses from flourishing even when digitisation

vides,  an  emergency  distance  learning  model  was

levels in the public sector were only starting to be

quickly  implemented  in  several  countries.  This  not

felt. Although on average Latin America had around

only pushed millions of children into exclusion from

67%  of  the  population  as  internet  users  in  2019,

their right to education, but put at risk the ones who

it was only 55% in Peru and 49.5% in El Salvador.

could connect, as emergency online education was

Divides  between  urban  and  rural  areas  were  also

highly mediated by intensive data-collecting private

significant: in Colombia, while around 72% of inter-

platforms  that  benefited  from  direct  agreements

net  users  were  concentrated  in  urban  areas,  rural

with  governments  without  further  supervision  or

users  were  only  36%. The  average  difference  was

accountability.9

around 25%.5

Updating regulatory schemes

2  For a deeper analysis of the applications implemented during the

The  centrality  of  the  use  of  digital  technologies  to

pandemic in Latin America, see: Venturini, J., et al. (2021).  Informe

respond  to  the  pandemic  came  with  a  force  much

Observatorio Covid-19 del Consorcio Al Sur: Un análisis crítico

de las tecnologías desplegadas en América Latina contra la pan-

demia. Al Sur. https://www.alsur.lat/sites/default/files/2021-06/

Informe%20Observatorio%20Covid-19%20del%20Consorcio%20

6  Ibid.

Al%20Sur%282%29.pdf; for an in-depth analysis of each platform,

7  ARTICLE 19. (2020, 11 May). Closing the COVID-19 response

see: https://covid.alsur.lat/en

transparency gap. https://www.article19.org/resources/

3  See, for instance, Resolutions 1/2020 and 4/2020 from the In-

closing-the-covid-19-response-transparency-gap

ter-American Commission on Human Rights: https://www.oas.org/

8  Bertoni, E. (2022, 6 January). O impacto do apagao de dados em

en/iachr/decisions/pdf/Resolution-1-20-en.pdf and https://www.

meio ao avaço da ômicron.  Nexo. https://www.nexojornal.com.br/

oas.org/en/iachr/decisions/pdf/resolution-4-20-en.pdf

expresso/2022/01/06/O-impacto-do-apag%C3%A3o-de-dados-em-

4  Ferretti, L., et al. (2020). Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission

meio-ao-avan%C3%A7o-da-%C3%B4micron

suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing.  Science,

9  Human Rights Watch. (2022).  “How Dare They Peep into My Private

368(6491). https://science.sciencemag.org/content/ear-

Life?”:  Children’s rights violations by governments that endorsed

ly/2020/03/30/science.abb6936/tab-pdf

online learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. https://www.

5  Patiño, A., Poveda, L., & Rojas, F. (2021).  Datos y hechos sobre

hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2022/06/HRW_20220602_

la transformación digital. CEPAL. https://www.cepal.org/sites/

Students%20Not%20Products%20Report%20Final-IV-%20

default/files/publication/files/46766/S2000991_es.pdf

Inside%20Pages%20and%20Cover.pdf

Thematic reports / 19

stronger  than  any  push  to  update  the  regulatory

capabilities13  was  evident  from  the  very  beginning,

frameworks applicable to those technologies. What

when we saw many examples of social media “cyber

the  first  two  years  of  the  pandemic  have  shown  is

patrolling”  and  even  drone  surveillance.14  In  turn,

an exaggerated version of what we knew before the

when private services collaborate with states by pro-

COVID-19  crisis:  regulatory  schemes  that  apply  to

viding data or technologies,15 or otherwise continue

the  internet,  both  at  the  national  and  the  interna-

their pattern of exploitation of internet users, emer-

tional level, seem unable to respond to the demands

gencies such as the current pandemic improve their

of  emergency  situations  and  social  unrest.  Many

prospects enormously.16 The challenge of reining in

institutional frameworks, which were already trying

both state and corporate power presents the need for

to cope with the challenge of a digital environment

data governance frameworks that give control back

ever-more  concentrated  in  a  handful  of  tech  com-

to data subjects, whose identity, existence, activity

panies,  were  given  new  priorities  and  reasons  for

and  labour  provide  the  information  that  is  current-

concern  when  the  COVID-19  pandemic  hit.  As  the

ly exploited by governments or others for their own

health  measures  and  emergency  relief  took  up  the

purposes. Data control mechanisms are thus needed

public  agenda,  other  regulatory  needs  were  put  in

at every stage in the development and deployment

second place.10

of  technologies,  and  need  also  to  account  for  spe-

The  need  for  regulatory  updating  is  not  neces-

cial circumstances that in the name of “emergency”

sarily  a  matter  of  technology  regulation  in  and  of

might be used to lower legal safeguards.

itself,  but  rather  part  of  a  larger  set  of  regulatory

Third, the need for a safe online space requires

challenges. Some of these are dependent on states

thinking deeply about how to reconcile swift action

themselves,  some  on  the  international  community,

against  hate  speech  and  the  legitimate  exercise  of

and  in  all  cases  they  deal  with  the  pressures  and

rights online, acknowledging that regulatory change

constraints  of  a  globalised  digital  economy.  Al-

is  far  from  a  comprehensive  solution  by  itself. The

though the pandemic stopped or slowed down many

continuum  of  offline  and  online  gender-based  vio-

relevant decision-making processes throughout the

lence  has  seen  a  worrying  increase  during  the

world, resuming those processes or starting others

pandemic  too.17  If  we  take  this  example,  long-due

anew needs to acknowledge these challenges.

regulatory  change  must  also  consider  the  offline

First, the prevalence of digital technologies in all

implications of what happens online – and the role

aspects of human life requires addressing the chal-

of platforms with the capacity to react must also be

lenges  of  exclusion  from  a  rapidly  digitised  global

acknowledged.

economy.  Given  that  not  only  emergency  health

Safety  concerns  have  been  front  and  centre

measures  but  work,  commerce  and  education  are

with  regard  to  the  proliferation  of  misleading  or

mediated  through  the  internet,  improving  connec-

false information during the pandemic. Information

tivity  is  necessary.  Moreover,  when  state  services

disorders  around  sensitive  or  hard-fought  issues

and  social  security  are  digitised  –  a  process  which

such as the climate crisis, national elections or the

accelerated during the pandemic – states should be

COVID-19 pandemic itself can thrive during a gener-

aware of and address the risk of exclusion in the pro-

alised  state  of  panic.  Regulatory  responses  to  this

vision  of  those  services.11  In  times  when  there  has

problem  need  to  acknowledge  its  complexity,  and

been such a large need for swift governmental aid or

internet  companies’  response,  however  useful,18

digitised services, the challenge is to provide not just

should not become a way to censor dissenting views

affordable internet, but meaningful connectivity.12

or  adjudicating  the  truth  of  contentious  matters  or

Second,  the  same  connectivity  that  empow-

ongoing  emergencies.  A  high  risk  comes  from  the

ers and facilitates positive change should not be a

source of abuse as a result of the mere act of using

the internet. The very real possibility of the pandem-

13  Surber, R. S. (2022, 4 April). The institutionalisation of fear: Global

surveillance with dubious pandemic legitimacy.  Open Access

ic being used as an excuse to enhance surveillance

Government. https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-218969

14  Lara, J. C. (2020, 1 May). La pandemia de COVID-19 y la pulsión

por la vigilancia estatal.  Derechos  Digitales. https://www.

10  Canales, M. P. (2020, 2 April). Tecnología contra la pandemia:

derechosdigitales.org/14411

derechos fundamentales mucho más que daño colateral.  Derechos

15  Venturini, J., et al. (2021). Op. cit.

Digitales. https://www.derechosdigitales.org/14355

16  BBC. (2021, 27 July). Tech giants’ profits soar as pandemic boom

11  Souter, D. (2020, 23 February). Inside the Digital Society: Digital

continues. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-57979268

inclusion and social inclusion.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/blog/

17  Derechos Digitales (2020, 10 July). La otra pandemia: internet

inside-digital-society-digital-inclusion-and-social-inclusion

y violencia de género en América Latina. https://www.

12  A4AI. (2020).  Meaningful Connectivity: A New Target to Raise the

derechosdigitales.org/14716/

Bar for Internet Access. Alliance for Affordable Internet. https://

18  Butcher, P. (2021). COVID-19 as a turning point in the fight against

a4ai.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Meaningful-Connectivity_

disinformation.  Nature Electronics,   4,  7-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/

Public-.pdf

s41928-020-00532-2

20  /  Global Information Society Watch

state itself: regulatory action against disinformation

regard  to  the  internet.  This  is  necessary  in  order

can become a source of punishment of speech or a

to  formulate  well-designed  policies  based  on  evi-

channel for surveillance,19 or an excuse to maintain

dence  and  expert  views  but  also  on  participatory

government control of public debate.20 Additionally,

processes,  with  mechanisms  for  evaluation  and

state measures to either ensure compliance with the

monitoring,  coordination  between  state  agen-

law or to detect (read: adjudicate) false information,

cies  and  with  the  private  sector,  and  effective

such as the cyber patrolling of fake news during the

mechanisms  for  enforcement  and  democratic

pandemic in Bolivia21 and Colombia,22 is a worrying

accountability.  Commitments  for  continued  moni-

development, and state action must also be strictly

toring  and  evaluation,  and  mechanisms  to  review

limited by applicable rules.

ongoing  measures,  are  also  necessary  regardless

To  all  of  the  above  we  must  add  the  risks  that

of  how  urgent  the  measures  or  reforms  that  may

cyberspace  represents  in  terms  of  cybercrime,  and

have to be passed.

more specifically, the likelihood of internet users be-

This  requires  addressing  the  fulfilment  of  the

ing affected by cyber attacks, including hacking. As

needs of everyone, understanding that digital tech-

much as cybercrime legislation needs both updating

nologies and the internet can and should have a role,

and  harmonisation,  while  remaining  respectful  of

but that their sole existence is no guarantee of mod-

human  rights  concerns,  international  negotiations

ernisation or efficiency. Avoiding techno-solutionism

for  a  new  cybercrime  treaty  that  may  yet  expand

is key not to fetishise technologies without centring

states’  capacity  to  prosecute  as  cybercrime  even

efforts on people.

ordinary  felonies  with  digital  elements  is  an  ongo-

The  challenge  requires  us  to  properly  identify

ing concern.23 A safe digital environment is not just

the  objectives  of  any  regulatory  effort.  Containing,

one free from exploitation, violence, harassment and

preventing and mitigating the effects of a health risk

disinformation, but also free from surveillance and

as well as its impact on society, and promoting a safe

undue prosecution.

return to normality, requires careful consideration of

available evidence and shared priorities. The likely

Another look at internet regulation

effects  of  the  chosen  regulatory  reaction  must  be

Of  course,  the  COVID-19  pandemic  has  already

evaluated to prevent undesired effects or undue hu-

caused regulatory change, in the form of emergency

man rights restrictions.

measures, states of exception, and changes in regu-

latory requirements for certain regulated processes,

A bottom-up regulatory agenda

especially  those  linked  to  health  services  or  finan-

One  crucial  element  when  rethinking  the  regulato-

cial  aid.  Whether  this  has  been  effective,  what  its

ry challenges of the internet after the pandemic has

effect is in the long term, or what it means for inter-

to do with the acknowledgement of local contexts.

net regulation in general, requires us to take another

The  realities,  needs  and  priorities  of  local  groups

look at what has happened, and what the remaining

should  be  considered  when  attempting  regulatory

challenges are.

solutions, instead of importing those solutions from

very different contexts. Of course, that becomes all

Rethinking governance and rule making

the  more  difficult  when  the  pressures  of  interna-

Beyond  the  current  emergency,  states  should  re-

tional  relations  seem  to  demand  a  prioritisation  of

think  how  their  regulatory  policy  is  enacted  with

commerce.  The  negotiation  of  international  trea-

ties and free trade agreements seems to favour the

19  Coalizão Direitos Na Rede. (2020, 1 September). Propostas da

governments, institutions and companies that have

coalizão ao PL 2630/20 para torná-lo uma lei efetiva e democrática.

http://plfakenews.direitosnarede.org.br

benefited from a privileged position from the start of

20  Ünker, P. (2022, 31 May). Turkey seeks to tighten media control with

the growth of the internet (especially since the birth

‘fake news’ bill.  DW. https://www.dw.com/en/turkey-seeks-to-

of the world wide web), as well as governments with

tighten-media-control-with-fake-news-bill/a-61990381

21  Céspedes, D., & Machaca, W. (2021).  Ciberpatrullaje y

high degrees of control over their domestic commu-

desinformación durante la pandemia en Bolivia. Fundación

nications and data economies.

InternetBolivia.org. https://internetbolivia.org/file/2021/07/

We must reconsider the role of our governments

ib_invdi.pdf

22  Ospina-Valencia, J. (2021, 4 November). Ciberpatrullaje estatal en

as  representatives  of  agendas  different  from  those

Colombia: una práctica que urge regular en América Latina.  DW.

of powerful states and big companies. That requires

https://www.dw.com/es/ciberpatrullaje-estatal-en-colombia-

a  degree  of  democratisation  that  may  exceed  the

una-pr%C3%A1ctica-que-urge-regular-en-am%C3%A9rica-

latina/a-59726694

idea of internet regulation. Internet regulation, like

23  EFF et al. (2021, 22 December). Letter to the United Nations to

all regulation, should be an expression of what soci-

Include Human Rights Safeguards in Proposed Cybercrime Treaty.

ety wants as rules for itself, not what a few interests

https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2022/02/letter-united-nations-

include-human-rights-safeguards-proposed-cybercrime-treaty

deem the greater good.

Thematic reports / 21

Towards a shared governance

countries, and other countries in the global South,

for our digital future

will continue to depend on infrastructures that result

Internet policy today concerns much more than the

in  dependency,  inequality,  human  rights  violations

internet as our lives and bodies are forced into dig-

and abuses.

itisation.  Naïve  as  it  may  sound,  the  global  crises,

This includes long overdue efforts to update the

wrought  and  worsened  by  the  pandemic,  present

rules  that  govern  the  rights  to  control  personal  in-

an  opportunity;  this  time  not  only  for  those  ready

formation, express one’s views and organise social

to take advantage from their positions of privilege.

movements, and it also extends to the use of the in-

This  is  not  only  because  there  is  more  consensus

ternet itself as a vehicle for cultural, environmental

on the need for updating regulatory frameworks, in-

and social rights. It extends to the governance of the

cluding those that govern the internet, in a way that

internet  beyond  national  borders,  to  ensure  it  can

protects and promotes human rights for all. It is also

continue  to  facilitate  rights  and  avoid  the  risks  of

because  the  pandemic  exposed  the  consequenc-

government control and corporate capture. And in all

es  of  neoliberalism  and  evidenced  the  urgency  to

cases, it demands a larger role from the citizens: it

build  alternative  development  models  that  include

is an opportunity to leverage democracy for a better

tech  developed  from  a  sustainable  perspective.

internet. For a better digital future for all, we must

New forms of regulation and policy making are key

advocate not only for new rules, but for the democra-

for  that  to  be  achieved;  otherwise,  Latin  American

tisation of all spaces where rules are made.

22  /  Global Information Society Watch

Tech, data and the pandemic: Reflecting for next time

Alexandrine Pirlot de Corbion and Gus Hosein

•  Elements of the vaccines’ effectiveness may re-

Privacy International

duce over time.

https://privacyinternational.org

•  Booster vaccinations could be used to increase

the body’s defences against the virus.

Introduction

It’s  also  worth  noting  that  none  of  this  was  known

Responding  to  a  pandemic  is  more  than  just  the

when the pandemic began, and it trickled in over the

mobilisation of the health system and adaptation of

course of the pandemic. Whether through a lack of

scientific research; the response is also a creature of

transparency, or the length of time scientific knowl-

the tools and measures available to respond.

edge takes to develop and permeate, or the evolving

Governments  and  companies  chose  to  use  this

nature  of  the  virus  itself,  public  health  profession-

pandemic  to  test  a  series  of  new  and  innovative

als  and  governments  had  to  take  decisions  in  the

measures alongside the traditional ones. A pandem-

absence  of  complete  knowledge.  This  is  entirely

ic is an extraordinary time and using available tech

understandable, and it was commendable that inno-

capabilities and data is common but can also be ex-

vative solutions were sought.

tra-ordinary. They  can  also  provide  the  rubric  for  a

However,  as  the  pandemic  became  better  un-

post-pandemic future, institutionalising some prac-

derstood, and now that we can begin to see its full

tices  and  infrastructure  for  the  next  public  health

nature,  we  must  reflect  on  whether  “innovative

response,  or  the  next  emergency,  or  the  “new  nor-

solutions”  were  sought  because  the  underlying

mal” normalising surveillance and control of people

fabric  of  public  health  and  welfare  was  so  frayed

and communities.

from decades of under-investment and if there was

an  over-investment  in  shiny  “innovative  solutions”

Context matters: A slightly different pandemic

rather  than  sustainable,  systemic,  fair  and  peo-

Every virus and so every pandemic is unique. And the

ple-centred solutions.

SARS-CoV-2 or “COVID-19” was indeed novel. Some

To  a  degree  you  can  track  some  tech  and  data

of its unique aspects are worth noting.1

responses alongside the available knowledge of the

While public health experts may find better ter-

time and see that the best available knowledge was

minology for capturing these, in our understanding

used to decide the best available responses. Some

these considerations help to explain the challenges

responses, however, became disassociated with the

of this particular pandemic:

emerging knowledge. Regardless, too many crossed

•  The virus was primarily airborne.

the  lines  of  ethics,  the  law  and  good  tech  practice

into opportunism, repression and tech-solutionism.

•  You could be asymptomatic and still transmit the

virus.

A typology of responses

•  You could be vaccinated and still transmit the vi-

By  reflecting  on  the  implications  of  some  of  the

rus to others.

measures deployed by governments, industry and

•  You could repeatedly become infected.

other  third  parties,2  we  can  begin  to  assess  the

•  The  virus  mutated  in  ways  that  could  escape

some elements of the deployed vaccines.

2  Privacy International. (2022, 20 March). Extraordinary powers need

extraordinary protections. https://privacyinternational.org/news-

analysis/3461/extraordinary-powers-need-extraordinary-protections.

For an outline of different tracking technologies used during the

1  Hu, B., Guo, H., Zhou, P., et al. (2021). Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2

COVID-19 pandemic and their flaws, see Privacy International. (2022,

and COVID-19.  Nature Reviews Microbiology, 19,  141-154.  https://

31 March). Covid-19: a tech post-mortem. https://privacyinternational.

doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7

org/explainer/4814/covid-2022-tech-retrospective

Thematic reports / 23

scale of data processing activities that took place

mobile phones to curb the spread of the virus.7 Sim-

and continue today.3 This assessment can help us

ilar  attempts  were  made  in  Kenya,8  South  Africa9

to  understand  the  magnitude  of  the  challenge  we

and Mexico.10 Other data sources were proffered by

face and will continue to face to protect people and

industry,  including  data  held  by  data  brokers  and

their rights.

other data aggregators based on smart phone apps,

leaking data to assess the extent to which there was

Measures adopted by governments

public adherence to caution and lockdowns.

and enabled by industry

Governments  then  started  check-ins  (done  by

The  decisions  made  by  governments  around  the

government  contacting  individuals  or  individuals

world varied as the pandemic evolved and was ex-

reporting to authorities) and used police powers of

perienced  in  different  ways  at  different  stages.

generalised  monitoring  (e.g.  CCTV,  facial  recogni-

Nonetheless there were some common approaches

tion, drones)11 or stop and search powers to ensure

and tactics.

that individuals were complying with orders.

Apps  were  sometimes  used  for  quarantine

Quarantining and lockdown enforcement

enforcement,  for  example,  in  Abu  Dhabi12  and  My-

Quarantining  was  a  top  first  response  by  govern-

anmar.13 These could disclose location data through

ments. Once someone could be identified as having

GPS or other automatic means, or compel an individ-

symptoms  relevant  to  COVID  and  once  tests  were

ual to report their location data manually.

developed  to  identify  someone  as  having  COVID,

governments would move them to quarantine.

Contact tracing

4 Even-

tually the virus spread, so governments reached to

Contact  tracing  can  be  an  essential  public  health

lockdowns  as  a  public  health  response.  Even  after

surveillance  response  to  a  transmissible  virus.14  If

lockdowns  ceased,  quarantine  requirements  were

someone  tests  positive,  contact  tracing  allows  the

imposed  on  individuals  and  groups  following  ex-

ability to identify individuals who may have been ex-

posure (often arising from contact tracing), or upon

posed to that individual while they were contagious.

the development of symptoms (which led to contact

In this pandemic, particularly in the early stages

tracing) or for people who travelled. These sustained

when  it  was  unclear  how  the  virus  was  transmit-

measures had tragic implications for people in vul-

ted,  governments  scrambled  to  use  vast  amounts

nerable situations.5

of  data  to  undertake  contact  tracing.15  Some  gov-

In all these cases data and tech could be used,

and  in  many  cases,  were  used  for  quarantine  en-

7  BBC News. (2020, 27 April). Coronavirus: Israeli court bans

forcement.  First,  telecommunications  data  was

lawless contact tracing.  BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/

sought from telcos to identify if someone was mov-

technology-52439145

8  Olewe, D. (2020, 9 April). Coronavirus in Africa: Whipping,

ing around when they did not have authority to do

shooting and snooping.  BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/

so  due  to  quarantine  or  lockdown.6  A  leading  ex-

world-africa-52214740

ample  of  this  was  Israel,  where  the  government

9  Hunter, M., & Thakur, C. (2020, 3 April). Advocacy: New privacy

tasked the Israeli security service Shin Bet to track

rules for Covid-19 tracking a step in the right direction, but….

amaBhungane. https://amabhungane.org/advocacy/advocacy-

new-privacy-rules-for-covid-19-tracking-a-step-in-the-right-

direction-but

3  See: Sequera Buzarquis, M. (2020, 7 March). Las emergencias no

10  Galán, V. (2020, 31 March). El Gobierno de la CDMX ordena el

deberían ser un cheque en blanco.  TEDIC. https://www.tedic.org/

cierre de centros comerciales por emergencia sanitaria ante

noesunchequeenblanco; Memdutt, V. (2020, 14 April). COVID-19

Covid-19.  Business Insider Mexico. https://businessinsider.mx/

Surveillance Infosheet!  Right2Know. https://www.r2k.org.

cdmx-ordena-cierre-centros-comerciales-covid-19

za/2020/04/14/covid-19-surveillance-infosheet; Digital Rights 11  AP News. (2020, 25 June). Asia Today: India to survey 29 million

Foundation. (2020, 13 March). Protecting Your Rights During the

New Delhi residents.  AP News. https://apnews.com/article/

Covid-19 Outbreak. https://digitalrightsfoundation.pk/protecting-

virus-outbreak-india-ap-top-news-new-delhi-international-news-

your-digital-rights-during-the-covid-19-outbreak; Foundation for

f34eecac3d01431ab5848bb3aa03fc3d

Media Alternatives. (2020, 15 March). Covid-19, public health, and

12  Nasrallah, T., & Zaman, S. (2020, 3 April). Abu Dhabi launches smart

privacy: The FMA Digital Rights Report. https://fma.ph/2020/03/15/

app to monitor home-quarantined people.  Gulf News. https://

public-health-and-privacy-amid-covid-19-the-fma-digital-rights-

gulfnews.com/uae/health/abu-dhabi-launches-smart-app-to-

report; https://www.alsur.lat/pt-br/projeto/observatorio-covid-19;

monitor-home-quarantined-people-1.70796153

https://privacyinternational.org/campaigns/

13  See: https://privacyinternational.org/examples/3911/

fighting-global-covid-19-power-grab

myanmar-launches-app-enforce-quarantine

4  https://privacyinternational.org/examples/

14  WHO. (2021).  Contact tracing in the context of COVID-19: Interim

quarantine-enforcement-and-covid-19

guidance. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/

5  Privacy International. (2020, 6 April). We must protect people in

contact-tracing-in-the-context-of-covid-19

vulnerable situations during lockdown or quarantine. https://

15  https://privacyinternational.org/examples/contact-tracing;

privacyinternational.org/news-analysis/3588/we-must-protect-

Privacy International. (2020, 19 May). Covid Contact tracing

people-vulnerable-situations-during-lockdown-or-quarantine

apps are a complicated mess: what you need to know. https://

6  https://privacyinternational.org/examples/

privacyinternational.org/long-read/3792/covid-contact-tracing-

telecommunications-data-and-covid-19

apps-are-complicated-mess-what-you-need-know

24  /  Global Information Society Watch

ernments  would  search  data  stores  in  geographic

the  Philippines,25  Chile26  and  Peru,27  while  others

locations where a COVID-positive person was known

reported  a  disproportionate  negative  impact  on

to  have  been  (e.g.  CCTV,  restaurant  billings,  and

marginalised groups including women and minority

other data sets stored more centrally, such as finan-

groups, and the criminalisation of communities lead-

cial transactions or transport data).16

ing to discrimination and stigma.28

Mobile  phone  apps  were  also  developed.17

These apps could use mobile phone data to detect

Border management

proximity  with  other  individuals.  Bluetooth  was

Governments  started  closing  borders  in  March

eventually  the  selected  technology  in  most  coun-

2020  when  the  World  Health  Organization  (WHO)

tries’ apps, alongside a decentralised infrastructure

declared  COVID-19  a  pandemic;29  and  when  they

using pseudonymised data.18

slowly reopened, surveillance was embedded in new

Concerns about the effectiveness of proximity

processes for travellers. It is important to note that

tracing  using  Bluetooth  technologies  were  cou-

these additional measures were added to an already

pled with longstanding privacy concerns of using

vast surveillance infrastructure at the border and be-

telecommunications  data  to  track  individuals.19

yond to monitor travellers.30

Reports of the repurposing of contact tracing apps

Quarantining  was  often  required  for  travellers.

for  law  enforcement  goals  have  emerged  in  Aus-

The use of “testing for release” became more com-

tralia,20  Germany21  and  Singapore.22  There  were

monplace as testing infrastructure improved. Testing

also examples of function creep with contact trac-

prior to travel meant that government agencies and

ing apps used to enforce lockdown measures and

a myriad of private sector firms were starting to be

control crowds.23

custodians of vast amounts of personal data about

Furthermore,  organisations  around  the  world

travelling families, including custodians of their test

documented the lack of privacy safeguards built into

samples  and  results.  The  travel  industry  also  be-

the  design  and  implementation  of  contact  tracing

gan to gain access to vast amounts of new sources

apps,  including  our  global  partners  in  Colombia,24

of  data  on  travellers,  including  their  detailed  bio-

graphical  and  family  documentation  (e.g.  marriage

certificates,  birth  certificates)  to  prove  family  com-

position  to  travel  to  some  locations  depending  on

restrictions.31

16  South Korea is often identified as the prime example of this

more advanced form of contact tracing. See: COVID-19 National

Emergency Response Center, Epidemiology & Case Management

25  Foundation for Media Alternatives. (2020, 8 July). Open letter to

Team, Korea Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. (2020).

request for strong user privacy protections in the Philippines’

Contact Transmission of COVID-19 in South Korea: Novel

COVID-19 contact tracing efforts. https://fma.ph/2020/07/08/

Investigation Techniques for Tracing Contacts.  Osong Public Health

open-letter-to-request-for-strong-user-privacy-protections-in-the-

and Research Perspectives, 11(1), 60-63. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

philippines-covid-19-contact-tracing-efforts

gov/pmc/articles/PMC7045882

26  Derechos Digitales. (2020, 16 April). CoronApp: La inutilidad

17  https://privacyinternational.org/examples/apps-and-covid-19

del atajo tecnológico desplegado por el Gobierno y sus riesgos.

18  Privacy International. (2020, 31 March). Bluetooth tracking

https://www.derechosdigitales.org/14387/coronapp-la-inutilidad-

and COVID-19: A tech primer. https://privacyinternational.org/

del-atajo-tecnologico-desplegado-por-el-gobierno-y-sus-riesgos

explainer/3536/bluetooth-tracking-and-covid-19-tech-primer

27  Morachimo, M. (2020, 14 April). Quince propuestas para mejorar

19  BBC News. (2020, 27 April). Op. cit.

la aplicación del Gobierno del Covid-19.  Hiperderecho. https://

20  Leaver, T. (2021, 16 June). Police debacle leaves the McGowan

hiperderecho.org/2020/04/quince-propuestas-para-mejorar-la-

government battling to rebuild public trust in the SafeWA app.  The

aplicacion-del-gobierno-del-covid-19

Conversation. https://theconversation.com/police-debacle-leaves-

28  Davis, S. (2020, 29 April). Contact Tracing Apps: Extra Risks for

the-mcgowan-government-battling-to-rebuild-public-trust-in-the-

Women and Marginalized Groups.  Health and Human Rights

safewa-app-162850

Journal. https://www.hhrjournal.org/2020/04/contact-tracing-

21  DW. (2022, 11 January). German police under fire for misuse

apps-extra-risks-for-women-and-marginalized-groups

of COVID contact tracing app . DW. https://www.dw.com/en/

29  https://privacyinternational.org/learn/tech-border; WHO. (2020,

german-police-under-fire-for-misuse-of-covid-contact-tracing-

11 March). WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media

app/a-60393597

briefing on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020. https://www.who.int/

22  Illmer, A. (2021, 5 January). Singapore reveals Covid privacy data

director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-

available to police.  BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/

remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020

world-asia-55541001

30  See for examples: Hosein, I. (2005). Transforming travel and

23  La Capital. (2020, 23 March). Controlarán a quienes incumplieron

border controls: Checkpoints in the Open Society.  Government

el aislamiento con una App en sus celulares.  La Capital.  https://

Information Quarterly, 22(4), 594-625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

www.lacapital.com.ar/la-ciudad/controlaran-quienes-incumplieron-

giq.2006.01.002; https://www.privacyinternational.org/learn/

elaislamiento-una-app-sus-celulares-n2572740.html

migration-and-borders

24  Labarthe, S., & Velasquez, A. (2020, 18 April). Covid apps in

31  Read, J. (2020, 29 September). Will new travel

Colombia, Karisma’s digital security and privacy evaluation.

technology invade your privacy?  National Geographic.

Fundación Karisma. https://web.karisma.org.co/covid-apps-in-

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/

colombia-karismas-digital-security-and-privacy-evaluation

will-new-travel-technology-invade-your-privacy-coronavirus

Thematic reports / 25

Certification

at least in the context of international travel, “given

There  was  limited  global  harmonisation  in  the  ap-

that  there  are  still  critical  unknowns  regarding  the

proach  to  both  the  use  and  purpose  of  COVID-19

efficacy of vaccination in reducing transmission.”40

certification  documentation.  The  uses  of  the  cer-

As time went on and boosters became deployed,

tificate  varied  considerably  across  the  globe.  The

some  countries  decided  to  extend  the  nature  of

certificates could identify “immunity”, meaning that

the  proof  required.  That  is,  your  vaccine  passport

someone had previously been infected, or “vaccina-

lost some of its “passport” capacity if you had not

tion”  if  they  had  received  a  vaccine,  or  if  they  had

received more recent boosts. This was in theory to

been tested recently.

induce people into getting a third or fourth vaccina-

Some  governments,  including  Israel,32  France33

tion.  But  with  equitable  access  to  vaccination  still

and Italy,34 among others,35 required the mandatory

being of concern, requiring certification of boosters

provision of a certificate to allow access to public life

remained highly controversial.41

and activities such as public venues like restaurants

Mass monitoring

or  cultural  events.  While  others  never  fully  devel-

oped a policy on their use,36 and with the pandemic

Public  health  surveillance  may  involve  wide-scale

having evolved, other pending plans for certification

monitoring.42  Usually  this  is  done  with  the  knowl-

have  been  dropped,37  including  for  international

edge and the consent of the patients, but rarely with

travel in some instances.38

people one level removed from them (i.e. contacts or

In  particular,  the  mandatory  approach  to  COV-

others in proximity).

ID-19  certification  raised  some  serious  concerns  in

In  this  pandemic  public  health  surveillance  ex-

terms  of  discrimination  and  the  impact  on  already

panded in some new ways. Temperature checks on

marginalised communities in contexts where access

people entering buildings became more common.43

to  vaccination  was  unequal  and  remained  prob-

This was a surprising development considering not

lematic  in  many  parts  of  the  world.39  These  risks

everyone  who  had  COVID  necessarily  was  symp-

and harms were also highlighted by the WHO in its

tomatic,  and  not  everyone  with  a  temperature  was

guidance  and  aligned  with  its  position  that  such

necessarily carrying COVID.44

mandatory requirements should not be introduced,

Governments also sought to use and expand their

existing mass surveillance tools for this pandemic.45

This entailed population-level or geographic analy-

ses using metadata, CCTV, and eventually drones46

32  Holmes, O., & Kierszenbaum, Q. (2021, 28 February). Green

pass: how are Covid vaccine passports working for Israel?  The

Guardian.  https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/28/

green-pass-how-are-vaccine-passports-working-in-israel

33  Chrisafis, A. (2021, 12 July). France mandates Covid

40  WHO. (2021, 5 February). Interim position paper: considerations

health pass for restaurants and cafés.  The Guardian.

regarding proof of COVID-19 vaccination for international travellers.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/12/

https://www.who.int/news-room/articles-detail/interim-position-

france-mandates-covid-health-pass-for-restaurants-and-cafes

paper-considerations-regarding-proof-of-covid-19-vaccination-for-

34  Giuffrida, A., & Henley, J. (2021, 24 November). Italy to tighten

international-travellers

Covid rules for unvaccinated with ‘super green pass’.  The Guardian.

41  United Nations. (2022, 10 March). High Commissioner for Human

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/24/italy-poised-to-

Rights: the Failure to Administer the COVID-19 Vaccines in a Fair and

tighten-rules-for-unvaccinated-with-super-green-pass

Equitable Manner is Prolonging the Pandemic. https://www.ohchr.

35  McDonagh, S., & Gallagher, T. (2021, 17 November). Green pass:

org/en/press-releases/2022/03/high-commissioner-human-rights-

Which countries in Europe require a COVID vaccine pass to get

failure-administer-covid-19-vaccines-fair-and

around?  Euronews.  https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/10/12/

42  WHO. (2022, 14 February). Public health

green-pass-which-countries-in-europe-do-you-need-one-for

surveillance for COVID-19: interim guidance.

36  Jackson, M. (2021, 12 September). England vaccine passport plans

https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/

ditched, Sajid Javid says.  BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/

WHO-2019-nCoV-SurveillanceGuidance-2022.1

uk-58535258

43  Privacy International. (2020, 30 July). Infrared temperature

37  Al Jazeera. (2022, 12 February). Israel PM announces end of

screening. https://privacyinternational.org/explainer/4111/

vaccine ‘green pass’.  Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/

infrared-temperature-screening

news/2022/2/17/israel-pm-announces-end-of-vaccine-green-pass

44  UK Medicines & Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. (2020, 3

38  Thackray, L. (2022, 30 June). The destinations that have

July). Don’t rely on temperature screening products for detection

scrapped all travel restrictions – regardless of vaccination

of coronavirus (COVID-19), says MHRA. https://www.gov.uk/

status.  The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/

government/news/dont-rely-on-temperature-screening-products-

travel/news-and-advice/countries-no-travel-restrictions-tests-

for-detection-of-coronavirus-covid-19-says-mhra

unvaccinated-b2071371.html

45  do Carmo Barriga, A., Martins, A. F., Simões, M. J., & Faustino,

39  Ganty, S. (2021). The Veil of the COVID-19 Vaccination Certificates:

D. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: Yet another catalyst for

Ignorance of Poverty, Injustice towards the Poor.  European Journal

governmental mass surveillance?  Social Sciences & Humanities

of Risk Regulation, 12(2), 343-354. https://doi.org/10.1017/

Open, 2(1).  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100096

err.2021.23; Maombo, S. (2021, 22 November). Amnesty warns

46  Mok, O. (2020, 24 March). Authorities monitor MCO-compliance

against mandatory vaccination approach.  The Star. https://

from the sky with drones.  Malay Mail. https://www.malaymail.com/

www.the-star.co.ke/news/2021-11-22-amnesty-warns-against-

news/malaysia/2020/03/24/authorities-monitor-mco-compliance-

mandatory-vaccination-approach

from-the-sky-with-drones/1849681

26  /  Global Information Society Watch

and facial recognition47 to identify the movement of

classrooms  when  reopened,  and  beyond.51  This

people.48 The private sector has been instrumental in

urgency  of  the  demand  for  remote  learning  tools

instigating and pushing for many of these tools, as it

opened  an  opportunity  for  private  companies  to

already did before COVID-19.49

sweep in and offer their solutions with limited or no

due diligence mechanisms to consider and respond

The private sector embeds itself further

to the impact of their adoption. Some countries ex-

into our lives

panded  pre-existing  infrastructure,  but  for  many

Building  on  years  of  lobbying  and  investment,  and

such  infrastructure  was  not  in  place.52 We  saw  the

a  propensity  to  identify  opportunities  to  sell  its

rapid  uptake  of  virtual  platforms  like  Zoom53  and

products,  industry  was  quick  to  identify  this  glob-

Blackboard,54  the  expansion  of  initiatives  provided

al  pandemic  as  yet  another  hook  to  push  up  their

by  companies  like  Google55  as  well  as  the  use  of

sales, and reinforce their influence in many areas of

open-source platforms such as Moodle and Canvas.

our lives from our work to our education to intimate

In  addition  to  privacy  concerns,  this  has  raised

spaces such as our health needs.

concerns in terms of ensuring the right to education

The  pandemic  challenged  the  momentum  that

with the entrenchment of existing socioeconomic in-

had been building as a result of a decade of policy

equalities associated with an increased reliance on

making  around  the  world  aimed  at  reining  in  the

technologies which are not only unequally distribut-

power  and  dominance  of  industry.  The  result  was

ed, but distributed with uneven quality of access.56

worse  than  mediocre.50  Below  we  outline  various

sectors where industry entrenched itself further as a

Health care

result of the pandemic, with little scrutiny, transpar-

The data and tech industry had identified the health

ency or accountability.

sector as a fertile ground for data exploitation well

before the COVID-19 pandemic.57

Education

While  prior  to  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  there  was

already  growing  investment  in  the  provision  of  in-

51  See, for example: Digital Rights Foundation. (2021).  Virtual Learning

and Privacy Amid COVID-19. https://digitalrightsfoundation.pk/

formation  and  communication  technologies  in  the

wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Virtual-Learning.pdf; https://cetic.

educational sector, known as “edtech”, particularly

br/pt/tics/pesquisa/2020/escolas/G1; https://www.worldbank.

by the private sector, this expanded drastically dur-

org/en/topic/edutech/brief/how-countries-are-using-edtech-to-

support-remote-learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic

ing  the  pandemic  to  enable  children  and  adults  to

52  Muñoz-Najar, A., Gilberto, A., Hasan, A., Cobo, C., Azevedo, J. P.,

pursue their education online for various periods of

& Akmal, M. (2021).  Remote Learning during COVID-19: Lessons

time over the course of the pandemic.

from Today, Principles for Tomorrow. World Bank Group .  https://

documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/160271637074230077/pdf/

Primary, secondary and tertiary education across

Remote-Learning-During-COVID-19-Lessons-from-Today-Principles-

the  world  adopted  emergency  remote  learning

for-Tomorrow.pdf

measures  with  the  uptake  of  education  technolo-

53  Duball, J. (2020, 28 April). Shift to online learning ignites

student privacy concerns.  IAPP.  https://iapp.org/news/a/

gies  –  extending  into  homes  during  closures,  into

shift-to-online-learning-ignites-student-privacy-concerns

54  Muñoz-Najar, A., Gilberto, A., Hasan, A., Cobo, C., Azevedo, J. P., &

Akmal, M. (2021). Op. cit.

55  For example, Google Workspace for Education, which includes

Google classroom. It was first introduced in Amazonas state, Brazil,

in 2015; see: Repórter Parentins. (2015, 8 April). Governador José

Melo formaliza parceria do Governo do Estado com Google para

47  Roussi, A. (2020, 18 November). Resisting the rise of facial

serviços tecnológicos educacionais. https://reporterparintins.

recognition.  Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-

com.br/?q=276-conteudo-2657-governador-jose-melo-formaliza-

020-03188-2; Van Natta, M., Chen, P., Herbek, S., Jain, R., Kastelic,

parceria-do-governo-do-estado-com-google-para-servicos-

N., Katz, E., Struble, M., Vanam, V., & Vattikonda, N. (2020). The

tecnologicos-educacionais; see also da Cruz, L. R., & Venturini, J. R.

rise and regulation of thermal facial recognition technology during

(2020). Neoliberalismo e crise: o avanço silencioso do capitalismo

the COVID-19 pandemic.  Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 7(1).

de vigilância na educação brasileira durante a pandemia da

https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsaa038

Covid-19.  Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação, 28,  1060-

48  Bacchi, U. (2022, 9 March). Pandemic surveillance: is tracing tech

1085. https://br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/article/view/v28p1060

here to stay?  Thomson Reuters Foundation. https://news.trust.org/

56  UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education. (2020, 20 June).

item/20220304092506-aky0c

Right to education: impact of the coronavirus disease crisis on

49  See: https://privacyinternational.org/learn/public-private-

the right to education – concerns, challenges and opportunities.

surveillance-partnerships; Privacy International. (2021, 18

A/HRC/44/39. https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/

November). Huawei and Surveillance in Zimbabwe. https://

reports/2020/report-impact-covid-19-crisis-right-education; UNICEF.

privacyinternational.org/long-read/4692/huawei-and-surveillance-

(2021, 29 April). Crianças de 6 a 10 anos são as mais afetadas pela

zimbabwe; Privacy International. (2020, 25 June). Huawei infiltration exclusão escolar na pandemia, alertam UNICEF e Cenpec Educação.

in Uganda. https://privacyinternational.org/case-study/3969/

https://www.unicef.org/brazil/comunicados-de-imprensa/criancas-

huawei-infiltration-uganda

de-6-10-anos-sao-mais-afetadas-pela-exclusao-escolar-na-pandemia

50  Privacy International. (2020, 8 April). Covid-19 response: Corporate

57  Privacy International. (2021, 10 November). Why we need to

Exploitation. https://privacyinternational.org/news-analysis/3592/

talk about digital health. https://privacyinternational.org/

covid-19-response-corporate-exploitation

long-read/4674/why-we-need-talk-about-digital-health

Thematic reports / 27

Since  the  start  of  the  pandemic,  companies  all

communication,  and  cloud  solutions  to  share  doc-

over the world have pitched data products, services

umentation  and  information,  among  other  tools  to

and solutions to COVID-19 – from big tech to compa-

enable the day-to-day operations of their business-

nies that might not be household names. Well-known

es.63 As this evolved and grew, we saw a shift that led

software companies like Palantir invested in a COV-

to  measures  focused  on  surveillance  and  constant

ID-19 response by offering health data management

monitoring of workers to keep track of performance

solutions to countries across the globe.58

and efficiency.64

Furthermore,  with  the  need  at  certain  points  in

Another  result  of  lockdown  measures  and  oth-

the  pandemic  to  limit  in-person  interactions  and

er  limitations  on  movement  has  been  the  boom  in

limitations  in  reaching  those  in  diverse  geograph-

home  delivery  applications  and  other  gig  economy

ic locations as a result of restrictions on movement,

sectors  such  as  transportation.65  This  is  a  sector

telemedicine  experienced  a  global  boost.59  Diverse

where  there  has  been  unprecedented  surveillance

tools  have  been  used,  from  real-time,  video-based

that gig economy workers are facing from their em-

health consultations and advice, to health monitoring

ployers. We are all coming to finally recognise and

apps/software  and  sensor-based  systems,  among

listen to concerns around the labour rights of the gig

others.60 As few governments develop their own soft-

economy workforce and how the experience of these

ware  and  hardware  or  infrastructure,  industry  has

workers is being shaped by platforms they have little

already played different roles, from providing digital

or no control over.66

health initiatives such as mass, centralised databas-

es for patient management to the use of applications

Future proofing

and other digital tools for the delivery of care.

We all experienced this pandemic, and we all have

While  they  have  the  tools  and  resources,  with

our  own  set  of  reflections  about  what  worked  or

many having shaped their business models around

didn’t. At Privacy International we worked with part-

data  exploitation  and  surveillance,  we  need  to  en-

ner  organisations  across  the  world,  engaged  with

sure that whatever contributions companies make in

governments, and worked with international organ-

the health care sector improve access to and quality

isations  and  industry  as  we  all  struggled  through

of care while protecting people and their rights.61

appropriate responses. Throughout we can say that

much was missing: adequate public health resourc-

Employment

es and infrastructure, fairness in access, equality in

Employees  and  workers  were  dramatically  impact-

rights and capability, trust and confidence. And yes,

ed  by  this  pandemic,  and  then  by  government  and

data about the virus.

employers’  responses.  The  private  sector  swept  in

Now, looking back from wherever we are within

with their products, with many being deployed with

this pandemic, we are very concerned that govern-

very limited or no consideration for the risks asso-

ments and industry are only focusing on the problem

ciated with them for workers, their rights, and their

of inadequate data. If that is the only lesson, then

well-being.62

the calls for more data and tech will follow – which

Remote  working  forced  employers  to  expand

means  more  tech  sector  in  our  health  care,  more

or  adopt  a  new  digital  infrastructure  to  enable

data  sharing,  and  more  exploitation.  That  will  all

their employees to work using online platforms for

come  at  the  cost  of  increased  social  protection.

And it will predicate future responses, arming pub-

lic  health  responses  to  prioritise  strict  quarantine

58  Privacy International. (2020, 6 May). (Sort of) Trust but Verify:

enforcement rather than helping people to care for

Palantir Responds to Questions about its work with NHS. https://

themselves  and  others;  coercion  and  compulsion

privacyinternational.org/long-read/3751/sort-trust-verify-palantir-

responds-questions-about-its-work-nhs; see also: https://www.

palantir.com/covid19

59  Mou, M. (2020, 22 October). Covid-19 Gives Boost to China’s

Telemedicine Industry.  Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/

63  Rodriguez Contreras, R. (2021, 15 December). COVID-19 and

articles/covid-19-gives-boost-to-chinas-telemedicine-industry-

digitalisation.  Eurofound. https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/data/

11603379296

digitalisation/research-digests/covid-19-and-digitalisation

60  Privacy International. (2021, 28 October). Telemedicine and data

64  Privacy International. (2020, 7 May). Unlocking

exploitation. https://privacyinternational.org/long-read/4655/

workplaces, virtually locking workers in. https://

telemedicine-and-data-exploitation

privacyinternational.org/news-analysis/3757/

61  Privacy International. (2021, 8 November). Digital Health: What does

unlocking-workplaces-virtually-locking-workers

it mean for your rights and freedoms. https://privacyinternational.

65  Bueno, C. C. (2020, 1 December). Pandemia, Tecnología y Trabajo .

org/long-read/4671/digital-health-what-does-it-mean-your-rights-

Global Data Justice. https://globaldatajustice.org/gdj/191/

and-freedoms

66  Privacy International. (2021, 13 December). Managed

62  University of St Andrews. (2021, 22 November). Employer

by Bots: surveillance of gig economy workers.

surveillance during COVID has damaged trust.  Phys.org. https://

https://privacyinternational.org/long-read/4709/

phys.org/news/2021-11-employer-surveillance-covid.html

managed-bots-surveillance-gig-economy-workers

28  /  Global Information Society Watch

over public educational programmes; profiling, iden-

people,  their  rights  and  data.  Governments  and

tification  and  rationing  over  open  access  to  public

companies were too easily able to deploy digital ini-

health services.

tiatives with little scrutiny, limited transparency, and

In addition to the direct measures deployed to re-

weak accountability.

spond to the health crisis, there is a need to scrutinise

Starting  now  and  going  forward,  we  must  re-

what shifts occurred across sectors, from the delivery

flect on these lessons to identify where and how we

of  health  care,  to  employment  settings  and  remote

must spend our energy to strengthen the protection

learning, in a moment of panic and urgency with few

of people and their data, and to hold governments,

measures subject to the necessary deliberations. This

companies and other third parties to account across

is necessary before current problematic practices be-

the human rights protection framework. This is crit-

come the foundation of our day-to-day lives in which

ical  in  advocating  for  people’s  fundamental  rights

industry has been let in, but should now be showed

and freedoms, from privacy to the right to health, ed-

the way out or at least put back in its place.

ucation, fair working conditions, non-discrimination,

The COVID-19 pandemic showed how fragile our

and freedom of movement, among others. There will

protection framework is when it comes to protecting

be future emergencies. We must be ready.

Thematic reports / 29

Big data, big tech, big problems: Time to look beyond

Paz Peña1

But not all companies using this logic are equal-

https://pazpena.com

ly powerful. For example, in recent years, dominant

companies from the global North, particularly from

Silicon  Valley  (the  companies  we  mostly  refer  to

Introduction

when  we  say  “big  tech”),  have  cultivated  an  ad-

vantageous  position  as  a  result  of  their  unusual

We hardly talk about the internet anymore. Instead,

appetite for data, which they must obtain in various

we talk about platforms: tweeting, googling, and so

forms  and  using  multiple  methods  (including  the

on, with almost all our social interactions mediated

purchase of promising start-ups).

by technologies. Not only do we no longer talk about

For  this  reason,  these  “platforms”  have  the

the internet, but we have also adopted the intention-

characteristics  of  both  companies  and  market-

ally empty concepts with which dominant companies

places. That is to say, on the one hand, they offer

seek to naturalise their extractive interactions: “shar-

various  products  and  services,  and  on  the  other,

ing  economy”,  “communities”,  “likes”,  and  a  long

they  are  constituted  as  markets  for  economic  ex-

etcetera that even includes the idea of “platforms”.

change.  As  intermediaries,  specifically,  platforms

On this, Ben Tarnoff indicates that the positioning of

connect and define relationships between entities

the word “platform” has been strategic for big tech,

in  the  multilateral  markets  they  host,  while  their

as it projects an aura of openness and neutrality, hid-

pursuit of network effects (i.e. the more users use

ing its control over our digital life and its active role

a  platform,  the  more  valuable  that  platform  be-

in managing those spaces.2

comes)  ends  in  a  “virtuous  circle”  that  leads  to

But beyond the convenience it has for big tech,

winner-take-all monopolies.4

what  does  the  concept  of  platformisation  refer

In this sense, for many, platformisation signals

to?  First  of  all,  it  is  a  type  of  business  model,  in-

a broader shift in capitalism: one where the entire

creasingly  predominant,  in  which  a  technological

economy  shifts  from  a  market-based  economy  to

infrastructure  is  designed  as  an  essential  mech-

one  based  on  the  advantageous  conditions  that

anism  for  extracting  and  using  data.  And  it  is  the

platforms can impose in digital markets. Moreover,

latter that is essential, driving these companies and

the  platforms’  management  of  user  interactions

giving  them  their  edge  over  competitors.  In  other

and relationships in these markets is automated by

words,  datafication  underpins  platformisation.  As

data-driven algorithms designed for economic gain,

data becomes a central resource for technology and

and  which  are  structured  through  technical  inter-

non-technology sectors of the economy, companies

faces and private terms of service, implying a highly

in various sectors must quickly develop ways to ob-

politically and culturally advantageous position.

tain and aggregate this information.3

In addition, this unusual appetite for data has

led these companies to seek out unregulated and

under-regulated areas for extracting personal data.

1  Paz Peña is an independent consultant at the intersection of

technology, feminism and social justice. She is the coordinator of

As  a  result,  many  researchers  claim  that  we  are

the Latin American Institute of Terraforming, where she researches

facing a kind of digital colonialism, in which these

the relationship between digital technology and the climate and

companies  build  communication  infrastructures,

ecological crisis.

2  Tarnoff, B. (2022, 16 June). ‘Wallets and eyeballs’: how eBay turned

such  as  social  media  platforms  and  network  con-

the internet into a marketplace.  The Guardian. https://www.

nectivity,  with  the  express  purpose  of  harvesting

theguardian.com/technology/2022/jun/16/wallets-and-eyeballs-

how-ebay-turned-the-internet-into-a-marketplace

3  Srnicek, N. (2017). The challenges of platform capitalism:

Understanding the logic of a new business model.  Juncture, 23(4),

254-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/newe.12023

4  Srnicek, N. (2017). Ibid.

30  /  Global Information Society Watch

data,  making  profits,  and  storing  the  data  as  raw

necessary  and  justified,  say  Gavrilenko  and  Mar-

material for predictive analytics. As Danielle Cole-

keeva,  but  they  warn  that  it  is  essential  to  create

man5 concludes, this allows them to accrue profits

conditions for the post-pandemic world to consider

from revenue derived from rent (in the form of in-

the  opinions  and  interests  of  citizens,  traditional

tellectual property or access to infrastructure) and

businesses, and public organisations.

surveillance  (in  the  form  of  “Big  Data”).  It  also

allows them to control the flow of information, so-

Is it too complex or too late?

cial  activities,  and  various  other  political,  social,

In this context, perhaps it is time to take a critical

economic and even military functions mediated by

look at the prevention and mitigation mechanisms

their technologies.

that have so far been promoted as public policy as

a counterweight to the platforms. One should look,

The eruption of the pandemic

for example, at the role that more liberal interpreta-

The  pandemic  has  deepened  the  warnings  that

tions of human rights have played in strengthening

were  already  being  made  by  academia  and  civil

the power of these platforms. Rights such as free-

society.  For  Gavrilenko  and  Markeeva,6  the  forced

dom  of  expression  have  been  co-opted  by  these

digitisation  of  the  past  two  years  has  revealed  at

companies for the almost non-existent intervention

least three key issues that should make us reflect

in their algorithms and terms of service as if they

deeply:  the  economic  and  ideological  power  of

were  neutral  spaces  where  their  profit  interests

platforms, their capability of changing markets and

were  the  equitable  measure  for  all  societies.  Pri-

influencing political institutions, and their increas-

vacy  and  personal  data  protection,  for  their  part,

ing control over people’s lives.

falter  in  the  face  of  covert  surveillance  for  com-

For  these  researchers,  thanks  to  the  pandem-

mercial and political purposes that would seem to

ic,  it  is  now  much  clearer  that  the  primary  vector

be  an  acceptable  trade-off  in  societies  exhausted

of  competition  in  platformisation  is  not  so  much

under  capitalist  production.  And  even  when  the

control  of  resources  as  control  of  access  to  them.

personal  data  legal  frameworks  of  powerful  local

In  other  words,  big  tech  is  not  merely  a  “service

or regional contexts seem to work – as in the case

provider”:  far  from  neutrality,  in  many  cases,  the

of  the  General  Data  Protection  Regulation  (GDPR)

platforms are significant players in their own mar-

in the European Union, which served as a shield of

kets.  The  authors  also  point  out  how,  due  to  the

protection from WhatsApp’s change in terms of ser-

pandemic,  political  institutions  have  been  influ-

vice  in  2021  –  this  has  only  shifted  personal  data

enced  by  the  platforms’  ideology  (which  has  also

extractivism  to  confines  with  less  protection  and,

been  referred  to  as  the  “Californian”  or  “Silicon

above all, less power to stand up against big tech.7

Valley”  ideology),  and  which  has  been  adopted

Several  authors  have  asked  whether  antitrust

without question by economic elites in many coun-

law can go deep enough to address the challenges

tries.  This  ideology  is  nothing  more  than  a  form

posed  by  platformisation.  For  example,  for  Pawel

of  libertarian  thinking  that,  behind  the  common

Popiel,8 economic regulation and the separation of

façade  of  “efficient  technical  solutions”,  seeks  to

business lines are key ways of doing this. However,

reduce  costs  and  subordinate  social  policy  to  the

to  address  the  real  challenges  of  digitisation  and

requirements of labour flexibility and competitive-

platformisation, these policies cannot act in silos;

ness, among others.

and  they  must  be  accompanied  by  the  promotion

This  relates  to  a  development  that  is,  in  my

of  alternatives  to  dominant  platforms  through

opinion,  more  disturbing  than  the  privatisation  of

subsidies, as this type of stimulus, which includes

digital  spaces:  that  the  state  and  platforms  are

models of public ownership and governance, is es-

forming a new consensus in the division of power

sential  to  attaining  benefits  of  scale.  For  Michael

and control over everyday life, testing all the vari-

Kwet,9  antitrust  reform,  which  is  presented  as  a

ous ways of expanding the aggregation of personal

solution by countries in the global North with the

information to do this. In the context of developing

solutions to prevent a pandemic, these actions are

7  Kilic, B., & Crabbe-Field, S. (2021, 14 May). You should be worried

about how much info WhatsApp shares with Facebook.  The

5  Coleman, D. (2019). Digital Colonialism: The 21st Century Scramble

Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/

for Africa through the Extraction and Control of User Data and the

may/14/you-should-be-worried-about-how-much-info-whatsapp-

Limitations of Data Protection Laws.  Michigan Journal of Race and

shares-with-facebook

Law, 24(2). https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjrl/vol24/iss2/6

8  Popiel, P. (2022). Regulating datafication and platformization:

6  Gavrilenko, O., & Markeeva, A. (2020). Digital Colonization:

Policy silos and tradeoffs in international platform inquiries.  Policy

Development of Digital Platforms in the Context of a Pandemic.

& Internet, 14(1), 28-46. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.283

Postmodern Openings, 11(1Sup2), 65-73. https://doi.org/10.18662/

9  Kwet, M. (2022, 31 May). Digital Ecosocialism: Breaking the power

po/11.1sup2/141

of Big Tech.  TNI. https://longreads.tni.org/digital-ecosocialism

Thematic reports / 31

desire to take care of their own colonial domains,

many, a way out of this exploitation is nationalisa-

is  particularly  problematic  because  it  assumes

tion, which is a pale answer to ending extractivism

that the problem of the digital economy is simply

because  it  now  will  be  exercised  by  the  state.  In

the size and “unfair practices” of large companies

fact, many of the state funds for new technologies

and not digital capitalism itself. The author reminds

seek to find the new “local unicorn” that will finally

us  that  antitrust  laws  only  work  for  those  players

make real the promise of building the local Silicon

who can compete, so there is little that legislative

Valley.

reform can do for the global South to stem the on-

going dominance of big tech platforms.

Peak data

Along these lines, it has also been explored how

Perhaps,  as  in  mining,  the  strategy  should  vary

data portability and interoperability measures can

and, instead, work on building critical reflection on

foster  competition  both  within  and  across  digital

data  extractivism  that  will  put  an  end  to  the  idea

platforms,  as  they  can  address  barriers  to  market

that personal data can be produced and exploited

entry arising from network effects and foster inno-

at almost no cost. While it is possible to increase

vation.  However,  as  an  Organisation  for  Economic

these  costs  through  legislation,  big  tech  is  today

Co-operation  and  Development  (OECD)  report  ac-

in such an advantageous position with the amount

knowledges,10  these  measures  are  not  suited  to

of  information  it  handles  that  it  can  dictate  the

all circumstances. For example, where a dominant

price: one need only recall Google’s promise to end

digital platform faces no rivals (including potential

third-party  cookies  by  2023.12  In  this  problematic

entrants with sufficient capacity to compete), these

context, perhaps it is time to look at Geert Lovink’s

measures  may  be  more  appropriate  in  promoting

proposal,13 which states that it is only a matter of

competition in related and complementary markets

time before this super-maximisation of data flows

than allowing competitors to the leading platform

reaches  its  peak,  whether  due  to  technical  issues

to emerge.

or not. Following the definition of peak oil, Lovink

Many of these approaches lack a real geopoliti-

believes that peak data will be the moment when

cal approach. It is not about the dominance of only

the  maximum  rate  of  extractivism  is  reached,  and

a handful of ultra-powerful companies but also that

thus, the platform logic implodes:

they count on the protection of their governments

that,  in  alliance,  seek  the  economic  supremacy  of

Peak  data  is  related  to  the  distinct  concept  of

their  countries.  As  Renata  Avila11  points  out,  such

data  depletion  when  the  moral  cost  of  “sur-

countries and companies have three elements that

veillance  capitalism”  outweighs  the  economic

most  developing  nations  and  even  middle-income

benefit for the few and society as a whole starts

countries  lack:  advanced  capital  and  intellectual

to decline because of an excess of social dispar-

resources,  a  domestic  and  international  legal  ar-

ity. Once the peak is reached, the presumption

chitecture  in  their  favour,  and  the  current  patent

that  the  better  the  information,  the  better  the

and intellectual property system that artificially re-

decision-making  process  can  no  longer  be

stricts knowledge sharing and innovation.

maintained.

In this context, for many authors, the response

The idea of peak data also seems interesting not in

to platformisation should not only rely on individ-

the sense of believing that data is a finite natural

ual or coordinated legal reactions but also on the

resource like oil (on the contrary, it is infinite and

impulse  that  governments  should  give  to  digital

intentionally produced by humans), but in the more

sovereignty,  consisting  of  locally  designing  and

recent context of understanding the idea of “peak

producing  the  next  generation  of  technologies

oil”: it is not caused by resource depletion (along

that  have  values,  behaviours  and  social  dynamics

the  lines  of  the  highly  debatable  Malthusian  idea

different from those that dominate big tech. How-

of overpopulation) but produced by the drop in de-

ever, this discussion is similar to those occurring in

mand for oil due to the imperative to end the use

Latin America regarding the exploitation of natural

of fossil fuels because of the planetary climate and

resources  by  foreign  mining  mega-companies:  for

ecological crisis.

12  Rus, D. (2022, 30 June). Google Analytics 4: Moving Into A New

10  OECD Competition Committee. (2021).  Data Portability,

Era Of Data Tracking.  Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/

Interoperability and Digital Platform Competition.  OECD. https://

forbestechcouncil/2022/06/30/google-analytics-4-moving-into-a-

www.oecd.org/daf/competition/data-portability-interoperability-

new-era-of-data-tracking/?sh=7158dacb18a3

and-digital-platform-competition-2021.pdf

13  Lovink, G. (2022, 7 April). Proposition on Peak Data.  Institute of

11  Ávila, R. (2018). ¿Soberanía digital o colonialismo digital?  Sur, 27.

Network Cultures. https://networkcultures.org/geert/2022/04/07/

https://sur.conectas.org/es/soberania-digital-o-colonialismo-digital

proposition-on-peak-data

32  /  Global Information Society Watch

In  a  concrete  sense,  perhaps  it  is  precisely  this

stakeholders must urgently design and deploy a dif-

crisis  –  the  most  crucial  challenge  in  the  history  of

ferent kind of digitalisation if we want to stay within

humankind – that will help to reach peak data in the

the 1.5°C targets. In this framework, it is not so far-

sense that, as the 2022 Intergovernmental Panel on

fetched  for  the  digital  rights  community  to  look

Climate  Change  (IPCC)  mitigation  report  says,14  the

closely at how the climate and ecological crisis can be

only  way  we  can  be  sure  that  digitalisation  will  not

vital to understanding the new possibilities for end-

contribute to increasing energy use in various indus-

ing the dominance of big data and big tech. The bad

tries is if it is decoupled from increased consumption.

news, of course, is that the latter is already deploying

If,  so  far,  platformisation  has  been  primarily  driv-

investments to show themselves as the “green way”

en  by  datafication  for  consumer  profiling,  the  data

out of the crisis.15 If the fossil fuel kings fall, others are

peak is already near, and governments and different

running after that throne. Let’s not let them.

15  Brigham, K. (2022, 28 June). Why Big Tech is pouring money into

14  Peña, P. (2022, 10 April). That technological future does not exist.

carbon removal.  CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/06/28/

Latin American Institute of Terraforming. https://terraforminglatam.

why-companies-like-stripe-meta-and-alphabet-are-behind-carbon-

net/that-technological-future-does-not-exist

removal.html

Thematic reports / 33

The rights approach: Pushing back against

opaque public-private partnerships

Gayatri Khandhadai

data  be  held  securely  from  third  parties.3 We

Business and Human Rights Resource Centre

also witnessed the large-scale spread of mis-

https://www.business-humanrights.org/en

information  on  social  media  platforms  and

messaging  applications.4  Coordinated  cam-

Private-public partnerships

paigns  were  carried  out  on  these  platforms

to  push  harmful  narratives  targeting  racial

Public-private  partnerships  (PPPs)  across  a

groups5 and minority communities for spread-

range  of  sectors,  including  digital  and  infor-

ing the virus.6 While platforms stated that they

mation and communications technology (ICT),

were  putting  in  place  policies  to  take  down

offered  important  solutions  to  an  impossible

content  or  harmful  “fake  news”  about  coro-

situation  created  by  the  COVID-19  pandemic.

navirus  and  vaccines,7  implementation  varied

PPPs were lauded for playing a pioneering role

depending  on  the  context.  Above  all  else,

in  combating  the  coronavirus.1  States  were

the  aggressive  use  of  digital  technologies  to

swift  to  adopt  digital  solutions  to  support

manage  the  pandemic  further  widened  the

lives  and  for  governance  during  this  period,

digital  divide,  impacting  the  lives  of  millions

as well as to help ease challenges created by

of people who either do not have any access

prolonged  lockdowns.  As  a  result,  there  was

to  the  internet  or  do  not  have  proper  access

significant  demand  for  ICT  infrastructure  in

that is affordable and accessible.8 Enshrining

these fields.2

platforms  and  technology-driven  “solutions”

Typically,  PPPs  offering  digital-based

at  the  centre  of  our  pandemic  response  ced-

solutions  and  support  during  the  pandemic

ed authority to define the values at stake, and

included  the  development  and  deployment  of

contact  tracing  apps,  vaccine  enrolment  and

management platforms, and health information

3  Various. (2020, 21 April). Joint civil society open

letter to the UN on public-private partnerships.

dissemination partnerships. While the benefits

APC. https://www.apc.org/en/pubs/

of  such  partnerships  seemed  obvious,  several

joint-civil-society-open-letter-un-public-private-partnerships

civil society actors warned of pitfalls.

4  Volkmer, I. (2021).  Social media & COVID-19: A global study

of digital crisis interaction among Gen Z and Millennials.

Concerns  centred  around  privacy,  data

Wunderman Thompson, University of Melbourne, Pollfish &

protection and security measures that govern

World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/

digital  platforms,  particularly  for  those  who

feature-stories/detail/social-media-covid-19-a-global-study-of-

digital-crisis-interaction-among-gen-z-and-millennials

communicate  with  the  expectation  that  their

5  Dubey, A. D. (2020). The Resurgence of Cyber Racism During

the COVID-19 Pandemic and its Aftereffects: Analysis of

Sentiments and Emotions in Tweets.  JMIR Public Health and

Surveillance, 6(4). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/

1  Davis, A. M., Engkvist, O., Fairclough, R. J., Feierberg,

articles/PMC7596656

I., Freeman, A., & Iyer, P. (2021). Public-Private

6  Murthy, L. (2020).  The Contagion of Hate in India. APC.

Partnerships: Compound and Data Sharing in Drug

https://www.apc.org/en/pubs/contagion-hate-india

Discovery and Development.  SLAS Discovery: Advancing

7  See, for example: Hern, A. (2020, 19 March). Twitter to

Life Sciences R & D, 26(5), 604-619. https://doi.

remove harmful fake news about coronavirus.  The Guardian.

org/10.1177/2472555220982268

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/19/

2  Grover, S., Rahemtulla, H., & Gin, C. (2020, 29 May).

twitter-to-remove-harmful-fake-news-about-coronavirus

Managing Public-Private Partnerships for a Post-Pandemic

8  Holmes, H. & Burgess, G. (n/d). “Pay the wi-fi or feed the

Recovery.  Asian Development Blog. https://blogs.adb.org/

children”: Coronavirus has intensified the UK’s digital divide.

blog/managing-public-private-partnerships-post-pandemic-

University of Cambridge. https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/

recovery

digitaldivide

34  /  Global Information Society Watch

deepened  pre-existing  patterns  of  inequality

Principles on Business and Human Rights14 (UN-

in society.9

GPs) offer a principled and pragmatic approach

Despite  these  challenges,  governments

for  ensuring  that  technological  advances  are

invested large amounts of money in procuring

grounded in respect and dignity for all and that

private sector technology and building PPPs to

their governance is rooted in rights. The UNGPs

deliver digital solutions to the pandemic.10 The

mandate  that  the  state  has  the  responsibility

allocation  of  budgets  relating  to  digital  trans-

to protect our rights, that companies have a re-

formation has since risen in many countries.

sponsibility to respect our rights, and that we

Information pertaining to PPPs and process-

must have access to remedy.

es governing them is often hard to find since they

Principles four to six of the UNGPs cover a

typically  require  exclusive  contracts.  Even  prior

range of policy areas relating to the “state-busi-

to the pandemic, civil society groups and digital

ness nexus”. This includes financial and other

rights defenders had to grapple with the “black

support  provided  by  states  to  companies,  the

box” phenomenon where public knowledge about

privatisation  of  services  that  may  impact  hu-

the  ways  in  which  technologies  or  tech-based

man rights enjoyment, and public procurement.

companies function act as a barrier to mitigating

Irrespective of the kinds of contracts that states

or addressing human rights violations.11 Another

may hold with private actors, they cannot out-

point to note about the state-company nexus is

source  the  responsibility  to  protect  human

that there is often a lack of clarity regarding the

rights. Therefore, states must put in place ad-

types of data that governments and the compa-

equate  oversight  mechanisms  and  policies  or

nies they work with have access to, along with a

regulations for accountability. Where states fi-

lack  of  transparency  of  ongoing  impact  assess-

nancially support, contract with or procure from

ments,  including  those  for  data  protection.12

technology  companies,  they  should  actively

The  Global  Network  Initiative  has  also  reported

use that opportunity to ensure that the compa-

government efforts to acquire “direct access” to

nies they work with respect human rights.15

user  data  in  ways  that  remove  intermediaries’

Another key recommendation in the UNGPs

awareness of and opportunities to object to or be

relates  to  due  diligence. While  the  conduct  of

transparent about this access.13

human rights and environmental due diligence

(HREDD) in itself may not remedy harms caused

Looking to the UNGPs

by  technology,  it  is  critical  in  understanding

Given that regulatory systems governing these

risks  and  devising  mitigation  strategies  or

partnerships  and  the  ICT  sector  are  vastly  dif-

solutions.  Given  the  close  relationship  that

ferent  across  jurisdictions,  the  UN  Guiding

states  have  developed  with  technology-based

companies  and  the  ever-growing  procurement

of technology, states must conduct proper as-

9  Cohen, J. E., Hartzog, W., & Moy, L. (2020, 17 June). The sessments before formalising partnerships and

dangers of tech-driven solutions to COVID-19.  Brookings

Tech Stream. https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/

require companies to conduct thorough HREDD

the-dangers-of-tech-driven-solutions-to-covid-19

as a prerequisite for contracts.

10  Fiscal responses of most states included digital-related

PPPs  with  tech-based  companies  are  fast

expenditure, as seen in: https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/

imf-and-covid19/Policy-Responses-to-COVID-19

evolving  into  opaque  bilateral  relationships.

11  United Nations Human Rights Office of the High

Even in instances where tech-based companies

Commissioner. (2021).  B-Tech: Bridging Governance Gaps

are willing to use HREDD, ongoing challenges,

in the Age of Technology – Key Characteristics of the State

Duty to Protect. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/

Documents/Issues/Business/B-Tech/b-tech-foundational-

paper-state-duty-to-protect.pdf

14  United Nations. (2011).  Guiding Principles on Business

12  Phu, S. (2021).  Empowering human rights in the State-

and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations

business nexus: Digital technologies and human rights

“Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework. https://www.

due diligence. United Nations Human Rights Office of the

ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/

High Commissioner. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/

guidingprinciplesbusinesshr_en.pdf

files/2022-01/Blog_post_GNI_Blog.pdf

15  United Nations Human Rights Office of the High

13  https://globalnetworkinitiative.org/defining-direct-access-2

Commissioner. (2021). Op. cit.

Thematic reports / 35

including  confidentiality,  hinder  the  develop-

The  primary  responsibility  for  protecting

ment  of  best  practices  around  HREDD  when

our rights rests with the state, and this means

it  comes  to  sensitive  business  decisions  that

that  PPPs  that  the  state  wishes  to  enter  into

involve  states  as  customers  or  partners.16 The

need  analysis,  consultation  and  oversight.

public – and more specifically digital rights de-

Adequate  and  predictable  accountability

fenders – are left out of these discussions and,

mechanisms  stemming  from  regulation  and

as a result, important perspectives are lost.

policy,  especially  in  areas  relating  to  data

States  using  technology  and  tech-based

protection and intermediary liability, are nec-

companies have lost significant public trust in

essary for accountability.

the  face  of  never-ending  rights  violations.  To

PPPs  using  digital  technologies  must  be-

regain some social licence to operate, compa-

gin with thorough HREDD and be subjected to

nies must engage with civil society actors and

audits  as  needed.  Grievance  mechanisms  in

affected  communities  in  the  HREDD  process

companies that are a part of these undertak-

and states must ensure that an inclusive envi-

ings are critical for the relationship they have

ronment is fostered.

with  the  community.  Periodic  assessments

and adjustments are possible only if commu-

Way forward

nities impacted by these operations and civil

The  pandemic  and  the  immeasurable  loss  we

society have a seat at the table. Stakeholder

suffered have taught us critical lessons for the

engagement  in  PPPs  across  their  life  cycle

future. For civil society, the agenda for accounta-

should be mandatory.

bility hinges on eroding the opacity of PPPs and

For meaningful engagement to take place,

ensuring  that  our  voices  are  heard.  States  and

information  and  data  about  these  PPPs  and

the private sector need to know and show that

operations  are  central. The  state  and  compa-

they are committed to processes and safeguards

nies involved would need to proactively make

against digital authoritarianism and abuse.

information  available,  including  information

States  should  commit  to  guaranteeing  ac-

relating  to  the  contracts  that  bound  the  par-

cess  and  accessibility  to  all  people,  and  this

ties together.

promise  must  be  accompanied  by  sufficient

We are witnessing ongoing efforts from Eu-

allocation  of  resources  to  build  the  necessary

rope17  to  Japan18  in  the  enactment  of  policies

infrastructure  and  promote  community-led

and regulations on HREDD. For civil society and

solutions to access. This is the stepping stone

internet users, this is a critical moment to en-

for  a  people-centred  digital  transformation,

sure  that  these  policies  meet  our  aspirations

one that will pave the way for meaningful and

and pave the way for an era of accountability in

rights-based PPPs.

the tech sector.

17  Khandhadai, G. (2022).  Buffering rights: How Europe’s new

due diligence regulation can help reverse tech rights risks.

Business and Human Rights Resource Centre. https://www.

business-humanrights.org/en/from-us/briefings/buffering-

rights-how-europes-new-due-diligence-regulation-can-help-

reverse-tech-rights-risks

18  Nikkei Asia. (2022, 15 February). Japan: Govt. to set human

rights due diligence guidelines for companies, hoping to

close gaps with US and European countries.  Business and

Human Rights Resource Centre. https://www.business-

humanrights.org/en/latest-news/japan-govt-to-set-human-

rights-due-diligence-guidelines-for-companies-hoping-to-

16  Phu, S. (2021). Op. cit.

close-gaps-with-us-and-european-countries

36  /  Global Information Society Watch

Global digital labour platforms offer a mirage

of inclusive development in Africa

Kelle Howson

the digital labour platform model include digital inter-

Research ICT Africa; Fairwork, Oxford Internet Institute

mediation of on-demand services, evasion of labour

https://researchictafrica.net; https://fair.work

protections,  algorithmic  management  techniques,

and piece-rate payment (or payment per “gig”).

Many of the practices described in the Uber Files

Introduction

have  been  honed  in  African  markets  in  particular.4

This  is  due  to  a  variety  of  structural  features  that

We have seen a sudden shift in public attitudes to-

digital  labour  companies  have  been  able  to  ex-

wards Uber’s business strategies around the world,

ploit.  These  include  high  levels  of  unemployment

following  widespread  coverage  of  the  “Uber  Files”

and  informality,  policies  attempting  to  facilitate

– more than 124,000 leaked internal company docu-

digital  development,  existing  social  inequities,

ments – in July 2022.1 The documents span a period

and  legacies  of  imperialism  and  colonisation.  In

from 2013 to 2017, and contain extensive details of

these  environments,  Uber  and  other  global  digital

Uber’s aggressive and often illegal expansion.2 Much

labour platforms have deployed monopolistic strat-

of this pertains to the company’s strategy of forcing

egies of rent seeking, regulatory evasion, and data

its way into markets including in Africa, and taking

extractivism.

advantage of local conditions to exploit workers and

Contrary  to  the  platform  narrative  of  creating  de-

pressure regulators. While Uber spokespeople have

cent,  flexible  work  in  places  where  it  is  desperately

claimed  that  the  company  has  changed  under  new

needed,  these  strategies  have  at  their  heart  the  ex-

leadership,3  the  digital  labour  platform  model  con-

ploitation  of  precarious  workers  and  accumulation

tinues  to  grow  in  Africa,  and  its  consequences  for

of  value  offshore.  During  COVID-19,  African  platform

workers have been laid bare especially in the wake

workers  have  consequently  been  exposed  to  dispro-

of the COVID-19 pandemic.

portionately high levels of risk.5 This includes the risk

While the Uber Files paint a shocking picture for

of  exposure  to  the  virus  in  the  course  of  their  work.

the general public, they contain few revelations for

This risk was heightened by platform workers’ lack of

platform workers in Africa, and for those of us who

access to the social safety nets which protected other

research  digital  labour  platforms  in  the  region.  In

workers during lockdowns – such as sick leave provi-

fact, the leak described with startling accuracy the

sions, or unemployment benefits such as South Africa’s

practices  that  workers  and  researchers  have  long

Unemployment  Insurance  Fund.  Because  platform

been trying to draw attention to.

workers are not classified by platforms as employees,

In  many  respects,  Uber  has  been  the  most  suc-

they often fall outside statutory protections.

cessful at instituting these practices, but they are by

Yet the pandemic has also shown how successful

no means unique to the company, and instead typify

digital  labour  platforms  have  been  at  interweaving

the  model  of  digital  labour  platforms  more  broadly,

themselves into vital public services and infrastruc-

including  across  the  ride-hailing,  food,  last-mile  de-

ture,  and  filling  institutional  voids  in  developing

livery,  and  domestic  services  sectors.  Hallmarks  of

1  International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. (2022).  The

4  MacMillan, D. (2022, 11 July). Uber promised South Africans

Uber Files. https://www.icij.org/investigations/uber-files

better lives but knew drivers risked debt and danger.  Washington

2  Deck, A. (2022, 18 July). “We’re just fucking illegal”: Uber Files

Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/07/11/

reveal a pattern of shady behavior around the world.  Rest of World.

uber-driver-south-africa-attacks

https://restofworld.org/2022/uber-files-rest-of-world

5  Howson, K., et al. (2021, 1 July). Stripping back the mask: Working

3  International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. (2022, 10 July).

conditions on digital labour platforms during the COVID-19

Statement from Uber spokesperson on the Uber Files. https://www.

pandemic.  International Labour Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/

icij.org/investigations/uber-files/statement-uber

ilr.12222

Thematic reports / 37

countries.6 This report discusses the underlying con-

the  4th  Industrial  Revolution  to  Address  Youth

text  of  digitalisation  in  Africa,  what  the  Uber  Files

Unemployment in Africa” was set to be held in Ac-

reveal  about  digital  labour  platform  strategies  in

cra,  Ghana,  in  March  2020,  and  later  postponed

this context, and how these strategies have impact-

because of the onset of the pandemic. In the lead-

ed workers – particularly in the pandemic. While the

up,  a  media  release  said  that  “the  continent,  if  it

discussion is specific to Africa, similar phenomena,

prepares  itself  through  adequate  policies  and

although  shaped  by  local  conditions,  are  no  doubt

readiness  of  the  private  sector,  could  enormously

evident in other parts of the world.

benefit through industrial development, digitaliza-

tion  and  greater  integration,  which  in  turn  would

High hopes for the Fourth Industrial

result  in  greater  opportunities  for  our  growing

Revolution

youthful populations.”11

Uber and other global digital labour platforms have

The accompanying concept note anticipates that

been supported to expand in African markets in part

the  growth  of  the  global  tech  sector  will  present

by development policies which aim to embrace tech-

risks, complexities and uncertainties for the African

nological advancement to address challenges of low

region, but makes no mention of the need to protect

growth and high unemployment. In the global South,

workers’ rights or vulnerable social groups in the con-

the “Fourth Industrial Revolution”, or “4IR”, is seen

text of digitalisation. Instead, it adopts a neoliberal

by many policy makers as an important opportunity

line, advocating for private sector-led development,

for job and economic growth,7 and an alternative way

and the removal of regulatory barriers to business.12

to  catch  up  to  more  advanced  economies,  amidst

It  sees  the  ideal  role  of  government  regulation  as

trends towards deindustrialisation.8 4IR refers to the

“facilitat[ing] the digital era to grow rapidly”, as op-

idea that digitalisation will fundamentally transform

posed to “slow[ing] down the successful adaptation

production relations.

of new technologies in production.”

4IR  policy  discourse  suggests  that  developing

These  priorities  have  been  echoed  by  various

economies can harness this shift to drive productiv-

African  leaders,  including  Rwanda’s  Minister  of

ity  and  growth,  by  specialising  in  information  and

Information  Communication  Technology  and  Inno-

communications  technologies  (ICTs)  and  digital

vation Paula Ingabire when, in partnership with the

commodities and services, and fostering tech entre-

World  Economic  Forum,  she  launched  a  centre  for

preneurs and startups. The African Union, as well as

technological  innovation  and  artificial  intelligence

African  governments,  have  placed  heavy  emphasis

(AI), called the “Centre for the Fourth Industrial Rev-

on the potential of the 4IR to create opportunities for

olution”.13 South Africa’s President Cyril Ramaphosa

young unemployed people across the region.9 As the

also established a Presidential Commission on har-

COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted industries and em-

nessing 4IR.14

ployment relations, calls for the creation of enabling

But,  with  the  Uber  Files  coming  as  the  latest

regulatory environments for digital development have

in  a  succession  of  stories  of  platform  power  being

been  amplified.10  These  calls  were  already  gaining

exercised unchecked on the African continent,15 the

ground throughout the 2010s, and had evolved in step

utopian  veneer  of  digital  efficiency  and  empower-

with the growth of the global tech sector.

ment that accompanies digital labour platforms may

An African Union Specialized Technical Commit-

be starting to fade. Other recent exposés of platform

tee Ministerial Meeting on the theme “Leveraging

practices include Time Magazine’s reporting in 2022

on the exploitation of platform workers moderating

6  Heeks, R., et al. (2021). Digital platforms and institutional voids

in developing countries: The case of ride-hailing markets.  World

Development,  145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105528

7  African Development Bank Group. (2019).  Fourth Industrial

11  African Union. (2020, 26 February). Op. cit.

Revolution in Africa: Study on unlocking the potential of the fourth

12  African Union Specialized Technical Committee on Finance, Monetary

industrial revolution in Africa. https://www.technopolis-group.com/

Affairs, Economic Planning and Integration. (2020).  Leveraging the

wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Potential-of-the-fourth-industrial-

4th Industrial Revolution to Address Youth Unemployment in Africa.

revolution-in-Africa.pdf

https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/conceptnotes/38223-

8  Naudé, W. (2017).  Entrepreneurship, Education and the Fourth

cn-2020_4th_stc_concept_note_-_eng.pdf

Industrial Revolution in Africa.  IZA Institute of Labor Economics .

13  Indebele, L. (2020, 6 April). Rwanda launches centre dedicated to

https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/10855/entrepreneurship-

artificial intelligence.  News24. https://www.news24.com/news24/

education-and-the-fourth-industrial-revolution-in-africa .

africa/news/rwanda-becomes-first-african-country-to-launch-

9  African Union. (2020, 26 February). The 4th industrial Revolution,

centre-dedicated-to-artificial-intelligence-20220406

a watershed moment for Africa’s development. https://au.int/fr/

14  The Presidency (Republic of South Africa). (2019, 9 April). President

node/38163

appoints Commission on Fourth Industrial Revolution. https://www.

10  Nachit, H., & Belhcen, L. (2020).  Digital Transformation in Times of

thepresidency.gov.za/press-statements/president-appoints-commission-

Covid-19 Pandemic: The Case of Morocco.  SSRN.  https://dx.doi.

fourth-industrial-revolution

org/10.2139/ssrn.3645084

15  International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. (2022). Op. cit.

38  /  Global Information Society Watch

content  for  Facebook  in  Kenya,16  as  well  as  report-

vastly outstripped demand, it undercut drivers – up-

ing  from  media  organisation  Rest  of  World  on  the

ping its commission and eroding pay to the extent

pressures  that  digital  platform  workers  in  Africa

that South African cities became the company’s most

have been exposed to during the pandemic.17 Rather

lucrative  markets  outside  the  US.23  More  recently,

than triggering a virtuous cycle of economic empow-

the  company  has  introduced  cut-price  services  in

erment  and  innovation,  it  seems  increasingly  clear

African  markets  (for  instance,  Uber  Chap  Chap  in

that these companies have used their digital tools to

Kenya,  Uber  Go  in  South  Africa),  forcing  drivers  of

extract rents from African service and transport sec-

older or smaller cars onto these poorer-paying ser-

tors and exploit workers without giving much back

vices. In many cases this has left drivers struggling

in return.

to meet their obligations under car rental or financ-

ing arrangements.24

The platform model: Management

Uber  contracts  drivers  from  a  limited  liability

at arm’s length

company registered in the Netherlands (Uber B.V.),

The recent reports and leaks have called into ques-

and  classifies  them  as  “independent  contractors”.

tion  narratives  of  4IR-driven  development  and

This has ensured their workers have little recourse

technological solutionism in the global South. While

to  local  judicial  or  statutory  labour  protections.  In

initiatives such as Rwanda’s centre for technological

countries with high levels of informality, where the

innovation envision local digital innovation as a driv-

majority of workers are not formal employees with

er of future growth, in reality, ownership and profit

protections such as minimum wage, sick and mater-

in the tech sector are highly concentrated in existing

nity  leave,  income  insurance,  and  due  process  for

centres of wealth and power – notably California in

dismissal,  these  arrangements  have  been  justified

the  United  States.18  This  follows  long-established

as a step up from the status quo.25

geographical  patterns  of  global  capitalism.19  The

However,  they  have  forcibly  closed  off  avenues

Uber Files call attention to the arm’s length, disem-

for improvement in labour standards and collective

bedded  management  model  instituted  by  digital

bargaining,  and  aimed  to  normalise  and  legitimise

labour platforms,20 alongside the general absence of

precarious  informal  labour  relations  as  standard.

the platform companies from policy and labour rela-

A  case  brought  against  Uber  by  a  group  of  drivers

tions dialogue, and from civic life in general, despite

challenging what they saw as employment misclas-

their enormous influence.

sification was dismissed by the South African Labour

The  Uber  Files  show  how  the  company  lever-

Court because the drivers were contracted by a com-

aged  extremely  high  levels  of  unemployment  in

pany in the Netherlands. The court said they could

African  countries  to  rapidly  enrol  an  oversupply  of

not dispute their contracts in South Africa.26

workers, capture transport markets, and then raise

These  strategies  of  regulatory  evasion  are

prices.21 South Africa, for instance, has an unemploy-

reflected throughout the Uber Files. Uber’s rapid ex-

ment rate of over 40% (including discouraged work

pansionism, enabled by advancements in computing

seekers).22  In  this  desperate  context,  Uber  lured

capabilities and connectivity infrastructure, allowed

thousands  of  drivers  with  attractive  subsidies,  and

the company to insert itself into local transport sys-

once the platform had enrolled enough users to se-

tems so quickly and decisively – ignoring local civic

cure a monopoly while ensuring that labour supply

processes, social dialogue and regulation – that by

the time its influence became clear, it was extreme-

ly difficult to regulate. Then, when it did eventually

16  Periggo, B. (2022, 17 February). Inside Facebook’s African Sweatshop.

become subject to regulatory pressure, it unleashed

Time. https://time.com/6147458/facebook-africa-content-moderation-

employee-treatment

massive  corporate  lobbying  efforts  to  deflect  such

17  Mwareya, R., Bhat, A., & Relmucao, J. J. (2022, 17 June). Rising food

pressure,  and  in  some  cases  attempted  to  rewrite

and fuel costs are making gig work unsustainable.  Rest of World.

laws in its favour.27 When Nigerian authorities tried

https://restofworld.org/2022/rising-fuel-food-costs-gig-workers

to address Uber’s tax evasion, the Uber Files show

18  Rani, U., et al. (2021).  World Employment and Social Outlook 2021:

The role of digital labour platforms in transforming the world of

work. International Labour Organization.

19  Howson, K., et al. (2021, 28 December). Driving the digital value

23  Ibid.

network: Economic geographies of global platform capitalism.

24  Howson, K., et al. (2021, 28 December). Op. cit.

Global Networks. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12358

25  Pollio, A. (2019). Forefronts of the sharing economy: Uber in Cape

20  Wood, A. J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2019).

Town.  International Journal of Urban and Regional Research,  43(4),

Networked but Commodified: The (dis)embeddedness of digital

760-775. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12788

labour in the gig economy.  Sociology,  53(5), 931-950. https://doi.

26  MacMillan, D. (2022, 11 July). Op. cit.

org/10.1177/0038038519828906

27  Davies, H., Goodley, S., Lawrence, F., Lewis, P., & O’Carroll, L. (2022, 11

21  MacMillan, D. (2022, 11 July). Op. cit.

July). Uber broke laws, duped police and secretly lobbied governments,

22  Statistics South Africa. (2022).  Quarterly Labour Force Survey:

leak reveals.  The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/

Quarter 1, 2022.

news/2022/jul/10/uber-files-leak-reveals-global-lobbying-campaign

Thematic reports / 39

that the company deflected by offering to help the

But  workers  face  high  barriers  to  holding  plat-

government collect tax from its drivers.28

forms accountable in court. In many places they are

Meanwhile,  despite  the  high  commissions  that

not  easily  able  to  form  or  be  represented  by  tradi-

the platform companies take from each transaction,

tional unions, typically only available to employees.

their operating costs are miniscule. They tend to own

Often the platforms’ methods of digital management

very little, if any, physical assets in the places they

atomise  workers,  cast  them  into  competition,  and

operate, such as cars, buildings and mobile connec-

make it difficult for them to meet and build solidarity.

tivity infrastructure.29 They are not subject to many

Nevertheless, ride-hailing drivers and food couriers

taxi and transport regulations and they also do not

have organised through social media and WhatsApp

contribute directly to road maintenance. If they de-

groups, which are used for sharing information and

cided to exit African markets, they could do so with

mutual support.33

very little cost or difficulty – and this dynamic gives

Numerous strikes and protests have taken place

them significant leverage over regulators.30

against platform practices across African cities since

the onset of COVID-19. Many of these have focused

Worker resistance against algorithmic control

on issues of safety and security stemming from the

and poor pay

pandemic,  but  the  majority  have  focused  on  cost

Even  though  platform  workers  are  nominally  inde-

pressures in light of pandemic-driven inflation, ris-

pendent,  in  reality  they  are  subject  to  methods  of

ing  fuel  prices,  and  depressed  demand.  Striking

digital control which reduce their agency and insti-

workers have highlighted the platforms’ rising com-

tute  a  relationship  of  subordination  with  platform

missions and lack of local accountability.

companies.  Drivers  on  Uber,  or  similar  platforms

In 2021, Uber and Bolt drivers in Kenya and Ni-

such  as  Bolt  and  DiDi,  don’t  set  their  rate,  and  as

geria  protested  the  platforms’  commissions  amid

gig workers they have no way of knowing what they

COVID-related inflationary pressures and the rising

might earn in a day (especially if the platform gives

cost  of  fuel.34  In  South  Africa,  drivers  working  on

customers  unexpected  discounts  and  incentives).31

Uber,  Bolt,  InDriver  and  DiDi  brought  services  to  a

They  are  surveilled  and  disciplined  by  platforms,

near  standstill  during  a  three-day  strike  in  major

including  through  ratings  systems.  They  can  have

cities  in  South  Africa  from  22  to  24  March  2022.35

their  accounts  blocked  or  terminated  instantly  and

The organisers – a group called Unity in Diversity –

without recourse, losing access to their livelihood –

mobilised drivers for an app “switch-off”. This was

and many do.

accompanied  by  protests  calling  for  fair  remunera-

As fuel prices and platform fees increase, most

tion and better security. In Egypt, food couriers held

drivers have little choice but to work for longer and

a two-day strike in April 2022 to demand higher wag-

longer hours, competing with other drivers for rela-

es in light of inflation.36

tively inelastic demand from passengers. For women

workers  who  carry  a  higher  burden  of  unpaid  care

Conclusion

and  domestic  work,  this  pressure  to  work  longer

Experience  since  the  pandemic  is  increasingly  re-

hours is even less tenable, making it more difficult

vealing  that  the  entry  of  digital  labour  platforms

to compete with their male counterparts. Women are

into African markets has not spurred inclusive dig-

often attracted to platform work because they need

ital  transformation  and  the  creation  of  sustainable

flexibility. Yet this is often revealed not to be the real-

livelihoods,  as  anticipated  by  4IR-friendly  policies.

ity. Research ICT Africa’s recent research on working

Instead, global platforms have entered African econ-

conditions  in  the  South  African  platform  economy

omies as rent seekers, deriving profit from (largely

uncovered marked gender inequities within and be-

already existing) service sectors like transport and

tween sectors.32

33  Harrisburg, K., & Asher-Schapiro, A. (2021, 14 April). Risks for South

Africa’s food couriers surge during the pandemic.  Thomson Reuters

28  Deck, A. (2022, 18 July). Op. cit.

Foundation. https://longreads.trust.org/item/South-Africa-delivery-

29  Srnicek, N. (2016).  Platform Capitalism. Polity Press.

drivers-risk-lives

30  Graham, M. (2020). Regulate, replicate, and resist – the

34  Prinsloo, O., Alake, T., & Genga, B. (2021, 19 April). Uber and Bolt

conjunctural geographies of platform urbanism.  Urban Geography,

drivers in Nigeria and Kenya protest over rising costs.  Business Live.

41(3), 453-457. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2020.1717028

https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/companies/2021-04-19-uber-

31  Fairwork. (2021).  Fairwork Kenya Ratings 2021: Labour Standards

and-bolt-drivers-in-nigeria-and-kenya-protest-over-rising-costs

in the Gig Economy. https://fair.work/wp-content/uploads/

35  Howson, K. (2022, 1 April). Digital facade shields e-hailing companies

sites/131/2021/12/Fairwork-Kenya-2021-Report.pdf

from accountability to drivers or passengers.  Research ICT Africa.

32  Ahmed, S., Chinembiri, T., Moyo, M., & Gillwald, A. (2021).  Future

https://researchictafrica.net/2022/04/01/digital-facade-shields-e-

of Work in the global South (FOWIGS): Digital Labour, New

hailing-companies-from-accountability-to-drivers-or-passengers

Opportunities and Challenges. Research ICT Africa. https://

36  AFP. (2022, 24 April). Egypt gig economy workers face

researchictafrica.net/publication/future-of-work-in-the-global-

rough ride.  France 24. https://www.france24.com/en/

south-fowigs-digital-labour-new-opportunities-and-challenges

live-news/20220424-egypt-gig-economy-workers-face-rough-ride

40  /  Global Information Society Watch

domestic work, while adding little real value to local

regulation in the global North, growing worker resist-

economies. As revealed in the Uber Files, platforms

ance in the global South, and a new sensitivity to the

like  Uber  have  adopted  a  strategy  of  monopolistic

importance of sectors such as delivery and transport

expansion, aided by venture capital injections, which

to  overall  social  and  economic  resilience  to  crises.

has left little room for local innovators or startups to

The future of digital labour platforms seems uncer-

gain a foothold.

tain – but it is possible that growing pressure in the

The  key  lesson  from  the  experience  of  African

global North could spur platforms to turn even more

platform workers during the pandemic, reinforced by

to permissive regulatory environments in the global

the  Uber  Files,  must  be  that  inclusive  growth  does

South, and exert added pressure against regulation.

not  automatically  flow  from  digitalisation.  Digitally

Removing  regulatory  barriers  to  their  expansion

driven development must be sensitive to local needs

in  Africa  is  the  pathway  to  digital  imperialism,  not

and  context,  include  the  participation  of  all  stake-

inclusive development. Instead, appropriate regula-

holders, and make a contribution to tackling Africa’s

tion of digital labour platforms in the post-pandemic

long-term challenges. Platforms can and should be

world must aim to protect workers, local stakehold-

accountable to workers’ demands for fairer pay, con-

ers and vulnerable social groups first.

tracts and conditions. But ultimately, many are able

to avoid responsibility due to a lack of enforcement

This  article  includes  some  text  originally  published

and responsive regulation from governments, which

on  the  Research  ICT  Africa  Blog  in  April  2022.  See:

have been keen to attract tech company investment.

https://researchictafrica.net/2022/04/01/digital-facade-

Recent months have seen increasing inflationary

shields-e-hailing-companies-from-accountability-to-driv-

pressures,  mounting  worker  victories  and  platform

ers-or-passengers

Thematic reports / 41

Advocacy in times of TRIPS waiver

Deepika Yadav

of vaccines by Canada, the EU and the US6 while the

Digital Trade Alliance1

marginalised population of the world either had no

yadavdeepika@gmail.com; https://twitter.com/

access or could only get them at prices much higher

deepika_yadav

than those in the developed world.7 We saw people

living in the global North getting booster shots and

Introduction

those living in middle- and low-income countries not

even receiving their first one.8 At the date of writing

COVID-19, the novel coronavirus first discovered in

this, only 19% of Africa9 is vaccinated while 68% of

December  2019  in  Wuhan,  China,  is  an  extremely

the US population is fully vaccinated.10

contagious virus which spread at an unimaginable

This  is  a  narrative  of  broken  promises.  At  the

rate.  On  11  March  20202  the World  Health  Organi-

start  of  the  pandemic  the  global  North  promised

zation (WHO) declared it a pandemic. Suddenly, we

“universal,  common  good”11  vaccines  to  the  world.

had  to  adapt  to  new  ways  of  living,  working  and

They pledged donations to COVAX, a facility set up

socialising.  Governments,  scientists  and  pharma

to promote the equitable distribution of vaccines.12

companies  raced  towards  developing  vaccines.

However, COVAX failed because developed countries

Pharma  companies  like  Pfizer,  AstraZeneca,  Mod-

did not keep their promise.

erna and Johnson & Johnson3 were able to develop

The problem was not limited to vaccines alone.

vaccines at a speed never witnessed before.4 There

Since the beginning of the pandemic, we witnessed

was a sense of relief that soon everyone would be

supply chain problems: there were acute shortages

vaccinated  and  the  world  would  go  back  to  being

of medicines, testing kits,13 N95 masks, PPE kits, ven-

normal.  However,  that  expectation  was  far  away

tilators and other medical products. As more deadly

from the reality of what ensued.

COVID  waves  ravaged  the  world,  citizens  in  devel-

Vaccine and medical product shortages

oping  countries  also  faced  the  problem  of  corrupt

The enormity of what followed can only be captured

in  terms  such  as  “vaccine  apartheid”,  “vaccine  na-

tionalism”  and  “vaccine  inequality”. We  saw  a  gap

6  Nyabola, N. (2020, 22 March). Poor countries are paying more for

in  access  to  vaccines  between  the  countries  in  the

the doses that remain after rich countries have had their fill.  The

global North and global South,5 and the stockpiling

Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/world/coronavirus-

vaccine-justice

7  Ibid.

8  Bajaj, S., Maki, L., & Stanford, F. C. (2022). Vaccine apartheid: global

1  Deepika Yadav is a consultant and coordinator for the Digital Trade

cooperation and equity.  The Lancet,  399(10334), 1452-1453 .

Alliance at Public Citizen.

https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-

2  WHO. (2020, 11 March). WHO Director-General’s opening remarks

6736(22)00328-2/fulltext

at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020. https://www.

9  WHO. (2022, 24 June). Delivering progress in Africa’s COVID-19

who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-

vaccination drive.  ReliefWeb. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/

opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020

delivering-progress-africas-covid-19-vaccination-drive

3  Chen, E. (2020, 30 July). Drugmakers Race to Build Covid-19 Vaccine

10  Based on the figures published at that time by the Google News

Supply Chains.  Wall Street Journal.  https://www.wsj.com/articles/

COVID-19 tracker. https://news.google.com/covid19/map?hl=en-US

drugmakers-race-to-build-covid-19-vaccine-supply-chains-11596101586

&mid=%2Fm%2F09c7w0&state=7&gl=US&ceid=US%3Aen

4  Santos Rutschman, A. (2020).  The Mosaic of Coronavirus Vaccine

11  European Commission. (2020, 24 April). Von der Leyen announces

Development: Systemic Failures in Vaccine Innovation. Saint Louis

Global Response and calls for united world front against

University School of Law. https://scholarship.law.slu.edu/cgi/

coronavirus. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/

viewcontent.cgi?article=1330&context=faculty

detail/en/ac_20_749

5  Pfeiffer, J. (2020, 10 March). A Global Day of Action to End Vaccine

12  WHO. (2022, 24 June). Op. cit.

Apartheid.  University of Washington Department of Global

13  Tomlinson, C. (2020, 5 May). COVID-19: Behind SA’s shortages

Health. https://globalhealth.washington.edu/news/2022/03/10/

of test materials.  Spotlight. https://www.spotlightnsp.

global-day-action-end-vaccine-apartheid

co.za/2020/05/05/covid-19-behind-sas-shortages-of-test-materials

42  /  Global Information Society Watch

black-market practices14 because of acute shortages

companies22 as they did not want to give up their

of medicines and medical products. Advocates wrote

monopoly. Instead, they opted for bilateral agree-

letters15  to  companies  to  raise  issues  of  shortages

ments with restrictive clauses that limited scaling

faced  by  middle-  and  low  income-countries.  There

up production. Almost 250 advocacy groups raised

was  an  urgent  need  to  scale  up  manufacturing  of

concerns  in  a  letter  to  the  director-general  of  the

medical  products  and  vaccines.  As  the  pandemic

World  Trade  Organization  (WTO)23  on  how  these

progressed, countries in the EU and the US and In-

exclusive  agreements  with  only  certain  manufac-

dia put export restrictions in place to meet their own

turers  in  developing  countries  created  artificial

domestic needs.16 This directly impacted nations de-

shortages.  For  example,  Gilead  entered  into  an

pendent on them for medical supplies.

exclusive  agreement  to  produce  Remdesivir  with

five  manufacturers  that  were  allowed  to  cater  to

How did IP become a problem?

a  limited  number  of  countries,  leaving  almost  70

The only solution to this public health crisis was to

countries  to  purchase  the  same  medicine  from

rapidly  scale  up  manufacturing,  which  could  only

Gilead at much higher prices.24

be  achieved  by  technology  transfers  and  sharing

It is a lie when the pharma companies insist that

know-how.  During  World  War  II,  the  need  for  pen-

IP is not a barrier. The truth is that they did not want

icillin  for  injured  soldiers  was  met  only  because

to  part  with  their  knowledge.  There  are  numerous

the  proprietor,  Oxford  University,  decided  to  waive

examples  which  prove  that  IP  rights  have  created

its  intellectual  property  (IP)  rights  and  share  the

barriers  in  producing  and  accessing  vaccines  and

know-how.17  COVID-19  called  for  a  similar  human

medical  products.25  While  Pfizer  excluded  Latin

rights-based  response.  However,  the  IP  owners  re-

American countries from its deal with C-TAP,26 a re-

fused to share their knowledge.

cent study revealed that BioNTech is trying to stop

Civil  society  organisations  (CSOs)  demanded

an  mRNA27  vaccine  hub  in  South  Africa  from  using

action to create patent pools for tech transfer and

the  mRNA  technology,  claiming  it  will  “infringe  on

sharing know-how to scale up production to meet

patents.” This  hub  aims  to  scale  up  its  capacity  to

any shortages.18 In May 2020, the WHO set up the

60%  by  2040.28 The  same  study  has  identified  120

COVID-19  Technology  Access  Pool  (C-TAP)19  as  a

manufacturers across the world that have the capac-

“single global platform” to share IP and data using

ity to produce the mRNA vaccine.29 It is proof against

voluntary licensing for those scaling up production

the  long-standing  argument  by  pharmaceutical

of COVID-19 vaccines and medical products. The fo-

companies that the global South lacks the capacity

rum was set up with much anticipation that it would

to  manufacture  mRNA  vaccines.  Advocacy  groups30

act  as  an  enabler  to  overcome  global  shortages.

have written letters to the US and German govern-

However, the pool remained relatively empty20 for

ments  to  take  action  to  ensure  that  tech  transfer

a long time. It took almost two years for the first

takes place with these manufacturers.

tech transfer to take place.21 C-TAP was welcomed

with  a  cold  shoulder  by  global  pharmaceutical

22  Baumgaertner, E. (2021, 30 April). Vaccine companies and the

U.S. government snubbed WHO initiative to scale up global

14  Mander, H. (2022, 2 June). Harsh Mander: How some exploited India’s

manufacturing . Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/

Covid-19 crisis to make money.  Scroll.in. https://scroll.in/article/

world-nation/story/2021-04-30/vaccine-companies-and-the-

1023156/harsh-mander-how-some-exploited-indias-covid-19-crisis-

u-s-government-snubbed-who-initiative-to-scale-up-global-

to-make-money

manufacturing

15  See, for example: https://www.tbonline.info/media/uploads/

23  The text of the letter, sent on 13 April 2021, is available here:

documents/open_letter_to_cepheid_covid-19_test_supply_and_

https://www.twn.my/title2/intellectual_property/trips_waiver_

prices_2-25-2021.pdf

proposal/CSOLetter_Dr.%20Ngozi.pdf

16  Human Rights Watch. (2021, 3 June). Seven Reasons the EU is

24  Maybarduk, P. (2020, 12 May). Remdesivir Should Be in the Public

Wrong to Oppose the TRIPS Waiver. https://www.hrw.org/

Domain; Gilead’s Licensing Deal Picks Winners and Losers.  Public

news/2021/06/03/seven-reasons-eu-wrong-oppose-trips-waiver

Citizen. https://www.citizen.org/news/remdesivir-should-be-in-

17  Garrison, C. (2021).  Ensuring that intellectual property rights aren’t

the-public-domain-gileads-licensing-deal-picks-winners-and-losers

a barrier to scaling-up: the remarkable example of penicillin

25  Human Rights Watch. (2021, 3 June). Op. cit.

production in the United States during World War II. Medicines Law

26  MSF. (2022, 8 March). Latin America: How patents and licensing

& Policy. https://medicineslawandpolicy.org/wp-content/

hinder access to COVID-19 treatments. https://msfaccess.org/

uploads/2021/04/Ensuring-IP-rights-arent-a-barrier-to-scaling-up-

latin-america-how-patents-and-licensing-hinder-access-covid-19-

the-example-of-penicillin.pdf

treatments

18  Tomlinson, C. (2020, 5 May). Op. cit.

27  A vaccine that uses a copy of the messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule

19  https://www.who.int/initiatives/covid-19-technology-access-pool

to produce an immune response.

20  Garrison, C. (2021). Op. cit.

28  Mara, K. (2022, 15 February). Op. cit.

21  Mara, K. (2022, 15 February). With technology transfer, 120 companies

29  Ibid.

in low- and middle-income countries could manufacture mRNA

30  Human Rights Watch. (2021, 15 December). Experts

vaccines.  Medicines Law & Policy. https://medicineslawandpolicy.

Identify 100 Plus Firms to Make Covid-19 mRNA

org/2022/02/with-technology-transfer-120-companies-in-low-and-

Vaccines. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/12/15/

middle-income-countries-could-manufacture-mrna-vaccines

experts-identify-100-plus-firms-make-covid-19-mrna-vaccines

Thematic reports / 43

The current pandemic has revealed at every step

grew. There were open letters and petitions, includ-

that IP rights are barriers. If manufacturers in coun-

ing  from  the  South  African  Anglican  Archbishop

tries like India, South Africa, Bangladesh and Egypt

of  Cape Town, Thabo  Makgoba,36  in  support  of  the

were allowed access to technologies and know-how,

TRIPS waiver, and petitions to the US president and

their  manufacturing  capacity  could  have  been  eas-

administrators by Health Gap, The Delhi Network of

ily, efficiently and effectively scaled up to meet the

Positive  People,37  Amnesty  International  USA38  and

global needs at affordable and equitable prices. We

Partners in Health,39 to name a few. The pharma lob-

could have probably averted the heartbreaking Del-

by was not far behind as they also sent a letter to US

ta wave in India and Latin America.

administrators  not  to  back  the  waiver. The  pharma

What is the TRIPS waiver and why was it needed?

lobby criticised the waiver as vague, broad and a tool

On  2  October  2020,  India  and  South  Africa  to-

to weaken IP rights.

gether presented a proposal to the WTO called the

On  5  May  2021,  in  an  extraordinary  move,  the

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

US announced40 its support for the TRIPS waiver for

(TRIPS) waiver. The waiver asked that all IP rights for

vaccines “in service of ending this pandemic” after

technologies that are important to develop vaccines,

months of opposing it. It was a big moment in the

medicine, equipment and kits be waived until “the

world of access to medicine advocacy and it played

majority of the world’s population has developed im-

a critical role. Had the advocates not worked hard,

munity.”31 The proposed waiver aimed to overcome

rallied politicians, and built global campaigns, this

the restrictive global IP rules to help countries enter

would not have happened. However, the US did not

tech transfer partnerships and export medical prod-

deliver  on  the  leadership,  giving  the  EU  an  oppor-

ucts without fear of sanctions or trade disputes32 to

tunity to block any progress on the waiver.41 In June

scale up and help produce “second-generation” vac-

2021  they  put  forward  their  own  “counter  propos-

cines against emerging variants.33

al”42  covering  only  patents  but  excluding  other  IP

Australia, Canada, the EU, Japan and the US op-

rights (copyright, trade secrets, regulatory data and

posed the waiver, standing their ground that existing

biologics) and promoting the use of compulsory li-

TRIPS  flexibilities  were  sufficient  to  overcome  the

censing and voluntary licensing.43 It was old wine in

IP  issues.34 The  proposal  quickly  gathered  support

a  new  bottle.  Compulsory  licensing  is  a  complicat-

from  many  developing  countries,  advocacy  groups

ed process which comes with its share of pre- and

and CSOs, as well as organisations like the WHO and

post-approval  requirements  which  are  time  con-

UNAIDS.35 Those advocating for the waiver knew that

suming,  cumbersome  and  often  export  restricting.

for it to be approved, the global North had to be on

Compulsory licensing can be an effective tool if the

board. From here on began months of hard work and

advocacy  campaigning.  CSOs  started  raising  their

36  The text of the letter, sent 6 April 2022, is available here: https://

voices and making fierce efforts to be heard by de-

healthjusticeinitiative.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Letter-

to-the-Prime-Minister-of-India-from-Makabo-Mazzucato-Medhora-

veloped countries. CSOs from developing countries,

Reddy-Stiglitz-Valodia.pdf

and  international,  regional  and  domestic  advocacy

37  Don’t Trade Our Lives Away. (2021, 2 February). The Delhi Network

groups from the global South, sent letters to call on

of Positive People write to 18 Ambassadors calling for supporting

the COVID-19 waiver at the WTO. https://donttradeourlivesaway.

the US president and leaders of the developed world

wordpress.com/2021/02/02/the-delhi-network-of-positive-people-

to support the waiver. A global advocacy movement

write-to-18-ambassadors-calling-for-supporting-the-covid-19-

waiver-at-the-wto

38  Amnesty International USA. (2021, 26 February). Amnesty

31  Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.

International USA and Hundreds of US Civil Society Organizations

(2020, 2 October). Waiver from certain provisions of the TRIPS

Urge Pres. Biden to Support COVID-19 WTO Waiver to Boost

Agreement for the prevention, containment and treatment

Vaccines, Treatments Worldwide. https://www.amnestyusa.org/our-

of COVID-19 - Communication from India and South Africa

work/government-relations/advocacy/amnestyinternationalusa-

(IP/C/W/669). https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.

and-400-ngos-call-on-biden-to-support-covid19-wto-trips-waiver

aspx?filename=q:/IP/C/W669.pdf&Open=True

39  Partners in Health. (2021, 4 May). Petition: U.S. Must Support

32  Human Rights Watch. (2021, 3 June). Op. cit.

Patent Waiver for COVID-19 Vaccines. https://www.pih.org/article/

33  Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. (2021, 10

petition-us-must-support-patent-waiver-covid-19-vaccines

May). WTO TRIPS Waiver for COVID-19 Vaccines: A Q&A with

40  Tai, K. (2021, 5 May). Statement from Ambassador Katherine

Anthony D. So, MD, MPA. https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2021/

Tai on the Covid-19 Trips Waiver.  Office of the United

wto-trips-waiver-for-covid-19-vaccines

States Trade Representative. https://ustr.gov/about-us/

34  Inside U.S. Trade. (2021, 17 February). Civil society groups push Biden,

policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2021/may/

other leaders to back TRIPS waiver. https://insidetrade.com/trade/

statement-ambassador-katherine-tai-covid-19-trips-waiver

civil-society-groups-push-biden-other-leaders-back-trips-waiver

41  Public Citizen. (2021, 23 November). How the Vaccine

35  UNAIDS. (2020, 15 October). UNAIDS supports a temporary

Rich Get Richer. https://www.citizen.org/article/

WTO waiver from certain obligations of the TRIPS Agreement

how-the-vaccine-rich-get-richer

in relation to the prevention, containment and treatment

42  European Union. (2021, 4 June). Communication from the European

of COVID-19. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/

Union to the Council for TRIPS. https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/

presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2020/

docs/2021/june/tradoc_159606.pdf

october/20201015_waiver-obligations-trips-agreement-covid19

43  Ibid.

44  /  Global Information Society Watch

existing rules and regulations are simplified. Advo-

monopoly power of the creator.52 These licences are

cacy groups across the globe staged protests44 and

now extensively used by research institutions, CSOs

delivered  petitions  to  the  Biden  administration  for

and government-run agencies.53 Creative Commons

them to get back in the game and not back down on

has  been  driving  awareness  around  the  lack  of  ef-

the waiver. However, developed countries refused to

fectiveness  of  voluntary  licensing  in  disseminating

give in and this resulted in a revised TRIPS waiver far

knowledge  and  is  actively  promoting  a  mindset  of

away from what was proposed.45

“progressive  copyright  law”  through  national  and

During the 12th WTO Ministerial Conference (WTO

global awareness.54

MC-12) negotiations, advocacy groups led a vocal cam-

Over  the  years  we  have  witnessed  growing  ad-

paign to call out countries blocking the waiver. On 15

vocacy  for  open  knowledge.  The  Open  Knowledge

June 2022, around 223 CSOs sent a letter to the trade

Network,  Public  Domain  and  the  Comprehensive

ministers at the WTO to reject the revised proposal.46

Knowledge Archive Network (CKAN) are a few exam-

CSOs,  advocacy  groups  and  academics  across  the

ples55 of open sources which share knowledge.

globe pleaded to heads of states to not to agree to the

There  exist  many  new  advocacy  opportunities

revised waiver.47 However, after two years of intense

to embrace when it comes to open knowledge and

battle, on 20 June 2022 the WTO reached a ministerial

open  licensing.  However,  in  the  context  of  the  cur-

decision on the waiver.48 The final text is very differ-

rent geopolitical struggle around vaccine advocacy,

ent from the original proposed waiver. It only covers

TRIPS  waiver-like  advocacy  may  not  work  in  the

vaccines and is limited to patent. We would not have

context  of  open  knowledge.  The  vaccine  advocacy

reached this stage if the IP was open for use.

occurred  against  the  background  of  a  grave  global

health crisis which had both social and economic im-

Open knowledge

pacts. In the case of open knowledge, the gravity of

Open knowledge is “any content, information or data

the situation does exist, but it is not backed by COV-

that people are free to use, re-use and redistribute

ID-19-like  time-sensitive  circumstances. This  works

without  any  legal,  technological  or  social  restric-

against  advocates  for  open  knowledge.  Does  this

tion.”49  It  leads  to  swift,  efficient  and  collaborative

mean we should give up? No. A realistic assessment

policy decisions. As an umbrella term, open knowl-

of potential impediments is required.

edge  encompasses  open  science,  open  data  and

open source software, and open education such as

Roadblocks to an open system

MOOCs, among other forms of “free-to-use” knowl-

The advocacy will not easy because:

edge that are available to people. Open licences are

First,  many  advocates  suggest  that  a  global

a tool to achieve open knowledge.

agreement  on  open  knowledge  is  the  need  of  the

Open licences used by inventors, researchers and

hour.56 Even UNESCO, during the 41st session of its

institutions lead to the dissemination of their work

General Conference in November 2021, recommend-

to the public by overcoming restrictive IP barriers50

ed having an internationally regulated national legal

and help to optimise public funding.51 One example

instrument in place to promote open science.57 Any

of open licensing is Creative Commons, created as a

negotiations  and  debates  to  make  a  binding  in-

response to a US copyright case that extended the

strument a reality necessitate a collective will from

the  global  North  and  global  South  to  agree  on  IP

and transfer issues.58 However, the negation of the

44  See, for example: https://rethinktrade.org/toolkit/

nov-30-photo-page-for-press

45  Green, A. (2022, 17 March). TRIPs waiver compromise draws

52  https://certificates.creativecommons.org/cccertedu/

mixed response.  Devex. https://www.devex.com/news/

chapter/1-1-the-story-of-creative-commons

trips-waiver-compromise-draws-mixed-response-102860

53  https://creativecommons.org/about/program-areas/

46  MSF. (2022, 15 June). Open CSO letter to WTO Trade Ministers:

policy-advocacy-copyright-reform

Do not accept the current draft, demand a real waiver. https://

54  https://creativecommons.org/about/program-areas/

msfaccess.org/open-cso-letter-wto-trade-ministers-do-not-accept-

policy-advocacy-copyright-reform/reform

current-draft-demand-real-waiver

55  Pollock, R., & Walsh, J. (2012). Open Knowledge: Promises and

47  Chintan, R. (2022, 28 June). India- South Africa TRIPS

Challenges. In M. Dulong de Rosnay & J. C. De Martin (Eds.),  The

proposal dies at WTO.  NewsClick. https://www.newsclick.in/

Digital Public Domain: Foundations for an Open Culture.  Open Book

India-South-Africa-TRIPS-Waiver-Proposal-Dies-WTO

Publishers. http://books.openedition.org/obp/550

48  WTO Ministerial Conference. (2022, 17 June). Draft Ministerial

56  Parker, A. (2021, 7 June). Open Science and Intellectual Property:

Decision on the TRIPs Agreement. WT/MIN(22)/W/15/

Using Open Licenses to Open Your Science.  Wilson Center. https://

Rev.2. https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.

www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/open-science-and-intellectual-

aspx?filename=q:/WT/MIN22/W15R2.pdf&Open=True

property-using-open-licenses-open-your-science

49  https://okfn.org/opendata

57  https://en.unesco.org/science-sustainable-future/open-science/

50  https://creativecommons.org/about/program-areas/

recommendation

policy-advocacy-copyright-reform

58  Montgomery, L., et al. (2019). Action.  Works in Progress. https://

51  Ibid.

wip.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/oki-ch10

Thematic reports / 45

TRIPS waiver does not leave much to hope for, as we

which is getting smaller and smaller because of the

can expect protests and blockades from developed

internet, open knowledge must be based on the prin-

countries and industries.

ciples of inclusion, diversity and non-discrimination.

Second,  when  it  comes  to  open  data  advocacy,

There is a need to build advocacy around promoting

there will be resistance from big tech giants backed

these principles.

by developed countries who would not want to lose

Another  area  which  has  gained  immense  rele-

their monopoly over revenue-generating big data or

vance is open data. First, there is a need to generate

aggregated data. A prime example of such solidarity

awareness around how open data should be collect-

is  the  24-year-old  moratorium  on  custom  duties  in

ed for it to be inclusive. Second, data is reusable. The

electronic  transmission59  because  of  US  lobbying,

same data sets can be used for different purposes

despite South Africa and India’s protest at the WTO.

resulting in meaningful outputs. The application of

Third, there are legitimate issues of cross-border

AI and big data analysis poses a threat to individual

data  flow,  consumer  privacy  and  national  security.

privacy, because it de-anonymises anonymous data.

Most countries, both in the global North and global

The  need  to  build  awareness  around  these  issues

South, lack a robust regulatory framework to protect

cannot be overlooked. In the case of open software

consumer data. There is no legally binding interna-

there is a need to focus on how to make open soft-

tional treaty to manage international data flow.

ware better and improve its quality.

Fourth,  we  must  realise  that  in  this  globalised

However,  for  open  knowledge,  any  advocacy

world,  knowledge  becomes  truly  open  when  it  is

has to address issues which are multi-sectoral and

free,  diverse  and  inclusive.  Advocacy  needs  to  be

require  a  focus  on  both  national  and  international

built beyond the issue of IP barriers. It must focus

level  advocacy.  Advocacy  needs  to  be  realistic  and

on  making  research  accessible  in  every  “voice  and

consistent. There will be periods of quiet and peri-

language” to make it truly open.60

ods  where  it  has  to  be  vociferous.  This  makes  the

Fifth,  negotiation  processes  at  the  multilateral

advocacy terrain incredibly complex for civil society

level  are  often  slow.  For  example,  the  definition  of

organisations,  which  require  advocacy  specialists,

“Traditional  Cultural  Expressions”  has  been  under

global partnerships and alliances with governments

debate  at  the  World  Intellectual  Property  Organ-

and sympathetic voices in the private sector to cre-

ization (WIPO) for many years now, yet there is no

ate an effective movement. This renewed debate on

common ground to agree on because the developed

IP is a golden opportunity to reinvigorate advocacy

and developing countries fail to reach a commonly

around  open  knowledge.  There  are  many  lessons

agreed definition every year.61

from the TRIPS waiver and the most important one

Yes, there are opportunities. There is an urgent

is to not be threatened by the limitations of licensing

need  to  build  advocacy  on  inclusion.  In  a  world

and super profits.

59  Banga, R. (2022, 8 June). Why Removing WTO Moratorium on

E-Commerce Will Aid Developing World’s Post-COVID Recovery.  The

Wire. https://thewire.in/economy/why-removing-wto-moratorium-

on-e-commerce-will-aid-developing-worlds-post-covid-recovery

60  Montgomery, L., & Neylon, C. (2018, 17 September). In a globalised

and networked world, what is the unique value a university can

bring? Introducing Open Knowledge Institutions.  LSE Impact Blog.

https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2018/09/17/

in-a-globalised-and-networked-world-what-is-the-unique-value-a-

university-can-bring-introducing-open-knowledge-institutions

61  Forum on Indian Traditional Medicine. (2019).  Protection of

Traditional Cultural Expressions in India. https://fitm.ris.org.in/

node/990

46  /  Global Information Society Watch

Documenting and navigating emerging trends

for digital rights funding

Natalia Tariq

tensions between major players that have resulted

Association for Progressive Communications (APC)

from  this.  When  the  conflict  in  Ukraine  began,  the

www.apc.org

demands on funders to meet the humanitarian and

refugee  crisis  overwhelmed  aid  budgets.  However,

unlike in the case of COVID-19, where an increase in

Introduction

overall  contributions  by  donors  in  response  to  the

pandemic came at the expense of other humanitar-

In  the  wake  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  there  have

ian  needs,6  high-income  states  were  urged  to  not

been widespread implications for every aspect of de-

divert  funds  from  existing  programmes  but  to  set

velopment.1 The economic downturn has accelerated

aside additional funds for the conflict.7 To what ex-

and  global  debt  has  surged,2  hitting  already  poor

tent bilateral donors have been able to do this has

and  vulnerable  people  hard,  while  partly  changing

varied,  and  competing  aid  priorities  have  in  some

the profile of global poverty by creating millions of

cases  led  to  funding  being  diverted  or  delayed  to

“new  poor”.3  According  to  the   Poverty  and  Shared

other  programme  areas,  including  funding  for  hu-

Prosperity  Report  2020,  “COVID-19  and  its  associ-

man rights and digital rights elsewhere.

ated  economic  crisis,  compounded  by  the  effects

While these global crises have stressed funding

of armed conflict and climate change, are reversing

budgets, the pandemic has also created opportuni-

hard-won  gains  in  poverty  reduction  and  shared

ties for civil society to build horizontal relationships

prosperity.”4  The  pandemic  has  also  revealed  and

with  donors,  opening  the  space  for  authentic  and

exacerbated the digital and gender divides as “pow-

transparent  conversations.  Donors  have  shown  a

er  imbalances  are  made  more  evident  and  starker,

willingness to be caring, agile and innovative in their

disproportionately affecting groups that suffer mul-

funding approach, and this transformational shift in

tiple, intersectional forms of discrimination.”5

the funder-grantee relationship dynamic is continu-

The economic downturn because of COVID-19 –

ing well into the “post-shock” era of COVID-19.

which came against the backdrop of already existing

pressures  to  urgently  address  climate  change,  be-

Competing funding priorities and implications

sides other ongoing regional and country conflicts,

for human rights funding

tensions and human rights abuses – has been made

Our  interviews  with  representatives  from  the  Eu-

worse  by  the  Russian  war  in  Ukraine  and  political

ropean  Union  (EU),  the  Swedish  International

Development  Cooperation  Agency  (Sida),  the  UK

1  Blake, P., & Wadhwa, D. (2020, 14 December). 2020 year in review:

Government’s  Foreign,  Commonwealth  and  De-

The impact of COVID-19 in 12 charts.  World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.

worldbank.org/voices/2020-year-review-impact-covid-19-12-charts

velopment  Office  (FCDO)  and  the  International

2  Gold, S. (2022, 2 August). How the debt crisis imperils development

Development  Research  Centre  (IDRC)  revealed

– and why it’s getting worse.  Devex. https://www.devex.com/news/

that  while  these  organisations  have  directed  fund-

how-the-debt-crisis-imperils-development-and-why-it-s-getting-

worse-103700

ing  towards  COVID-19  and  the  humanitarian  crisis

3  Nguyen, M. C., Yoshida, N., Wu, H., & Narayan, A. (2020).  Profiles of

in Europe, this has not been at the cost of funding

the new poor due to the COVID-19 pandemic. World Bank. https://

available  for  other  human  rights  work.  At  a  global

thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/767501596721696943-0090022020/

original/ProfilesofthenewpoorduetotheCOVID19pandemic.pdf

4  World Bank. (2020).  Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2020:

6  Igoe, M. (2021, 23 June). Devex Newswire: How COVID-19 broke

Reversals of Fortune. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/

humanitarian funding.  Devex. https://www.devex.com/news/

poverty-and-shared-prosperity

devex-newswire-how-covid-19-broke-humanitarian-funding-100206

5  Association for Progressive Communications. (2020).  Closer than

7  Gold, S. (2022, 8 March). Devex Newswire: How Russia’s war in

ever: Keeping our movements connected and inclusive – APC’s

Ukraine will affect the world’s poorest.  Devex. https://www.devex.

response to the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.apc.org/sites/

com/news/devex-newswire-how-russia-s-war-in-ukraine-will-affect-

default/files/closerthanever_pp.pdf

the-world-s-poorest-102810

Thematic reports / 47

level, the EU has a separate envelope of funding to

At the same time, the challenges of digital rights,

meet the needs of immediate crises, which is being

exacerbated during COVID-19 as the “responses by

used to provide assistance in Ukraine, and so there

some  governments  to  the  pandemic  revealed  fault

have not been any major cuts for human rights sup-

lines  that  challenge  the  democratic  foundations  of

port elsewhere.8 The situation is similar in the case

societies,”13  have  remained  a  priority.  According  to

of other bilateral funders we interviewed; however,

an  IDRC  senior  programme  officer,  “digital  rights

even though the funding has not been permanently

will only become more important because we don’t

redirected from other human rights work, there have

have good fixes for the challenges we are facing like

been delays in funding available due to the compet-

gender  misinformation,  cybersecurity  surveillance,

ing  emergency  priorities  of  the  Ukrainian  conflict

digital subversion, all of which are critically impor-

and COVID-19. These delays have created a situation

tant issues and speak to the convergence of online

of uncertainty for civil society groups working in the

and offline rights.”14 The IDRC invested a lot of fund-

digital rights space, particularly those in the global

ing  in  research  from  the  global  South  around  the

South who are heavily reliant on direct support from

short- and long-term impacts of COVID-19,15 the re-

government  donors  or  indirect  support  through  in-

sults of which indicate how the digital rights agenda

ternational NGO subgranting programmes.

remains of critical importance to the organisation.

There  is  also  a  shift  in  the  wider  funder  com-

Funding of digital rights remains central to

munity to integrate the digital in all aspects of their

donor concerns

programming in a more holistic and strategic manner

The pandemic has highlighted the importance of digital

that explores ways of supporting a diverse convening

rights and access, and, among other issues, donors are

of civil society actors to come up with collective and

prioritising working on issues of digital inclusion, liter-

innovative solutions to an increasingly complex digi-

acy and security. This includes a new wave of funders

tal landscape and ecosystem. Whether this means an

who did not previously support digital rights initiatives

increase in the amount of funding available for digital

as  well  as  those  who  have  increased  and  expanded

rights work is yet to be seen, but there is no doubt

their  existing  digital  rights  portfolios.9  Oak  Founda-

that  there  will  be  a  continued  commitment  to  this

tion,  for  instance,  under  its  broader  umbrella  of  the

field, even if the funding has different emphases.

International Human Rights Programme, is in particular

looking at human rights abuses online, such as digital

Moving towards embedding a politics

surveillance, censorship and information controls.10

of care in funding approaches

The pandemic has led to a common understand-

Adapting to working in the context of COVID-19 and

ing  among  donors  that  equitable  and  affordable

extremely  precarious  economic  and  political  situ-

internet connectivity has been and is critical to access

ations across the globe has presented civil society

relevant  information,  health  and  education  servic-

organisations as well as donors with unprecedented

es,  to  sustain  economies  through  virtual  work,  for

challenges.  Increased  stress  levels  and  online  fa-

civil society and social movements to sustain them-

tigue  have  been  widely  reported  by  organisations,

selves,  and  for  people  to  communicate  and  stay

and  donors  have  undertaken  various  strategies  to

connected.11  The  role  of  digital  technologies  has

respond.  Donors  and  their  grantees  have  had  to

also been central to many donors’ response to the

navigate shifting conditions together, such as tran-

pandemic. For instance, the FCDO’s Digital Develop-

sitioning activities and operations online, realigning

ment has relied on digital solutions for provision of

project deliverables and adjusting timelines.

emergency relief and services like health and educa-

All  donors  we  interviewed  acknowledged  the

tion, in creating opportunities for work and learning

complications, trauma and burnout associated with

online, and also to build long-term resilience to the

working  during  the  pandemic  and  implemented

pandemic and future crises.12

strategies aimed at minimising these stresses. Sida,

for  instance,  has  relied  on  open  dialogues  with  its

grantees to understand their challenges and provide

8  Renuka Srinivasan, Senior Project Manager, Delegation of the

support  accordingly.  For  example,  Sida  found  that

European Union to India, personal communication, 14 July 2022.

9  Alberto Cerda Silva, Global Program Officer for Internet Rights and

grantees in the Middle East and North Africa experi-

Access, Ford Foundation, personal communication, 13 July 2022.

enced difficulties in transitioning their interventions

10  Oak Foundation. (2022, 6 April). Digital space: The frontier of civic

repression and activism. https://oakfnd.org/access-now-citizen-

lab-digital-space-the-frontier-of-civic-repression-and-activism

13  Association for Progressive Communications. (2020). Op. cit.

11  Alessandra Lustrati, Head of Digital Development, UK Government’s

14  Ruhiya Seward, personal communication, 21 July 2022.

Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), personal

15  IDRC. (2022, 7 March). Two years into the COVID-19 pandemic: Insights

communication, 1 August 2022.

from IDRC research partners. https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-in-

12  Ibid.

action/two-years-covid-19-pandemic-insights-idrc-research-partners

48  /  Global Information Society Watch

online  due  to  the  complexity  of  their  contextual

Donors exploring the intersections

environments  and  lack  of  viable  connectivity  and

of technology with human rights, gender and

infrastructure  support.16  Sida  provided  these  or-

environmental justice in their programming

ganisations  more  flexibility  around  altering  their

activities  and  providing  extensions  for  project  and

Donors  funding  human  rights  initiatives  are  now

reporting timelines.

looking more closely at the interconnections of tech-

Some  donors  have  even  gone  a  step  further

nology with the fields they fund. The importance of

and  have  started  providing  financial  support  and

the digital as a cross-cutting theme, and as an ena-

set  up  well-being  funds  for  civil  society  organisa-

bler of all other rights, has become more apparent

tions  to  centre  care  in  their  practices.  An  example

as a result of the pandemic. Technology has had a

of this is the Care Fund that has been set up under

profound impact on international development and

Oak Foundation’s Issues Affecting Women Program-

humanitarian  aid  programmes.  The  application  of

me,

digital innovations and the responsible use of data

17 which is specifically intended to support small,

time-limited  projects  on  self  or  collective  care  for

were  key  to  successful  responses  to  COVID-19. We

its  grantee  partners.  Other  donors,  such  as  Global

also  saw  how  the  impacts  of  the  crisis  were  not

Fund  for Women,  are  taking  into  consideration  the

uniform,  and  the  challenges  of  the  virus  have  ex-

cost implications of remote work and participation in

acerbated  longstanding  inequities  and  decades

online convenings (such as increased data and con-

of  discriminatory  practices,  leading  to  unequal

nectivity  costs,  software  and  hardware  costs,  and

trajectories.21

costs of arranging for alternative family care).

According to the Ford Foundation,22 exploring the

intersections of gender, human rights, civic engage-

Core, flexible funding prioritised to build

ment, racial justice, environmental sustainability and

resilience for future crises

technology has become key to its programmes having

meaningful impact. It commissioned research in col-

During the pandemic, many donors switched to pro-

laboration  with  Ariadne  and  the  Mozilla  Foundation

viding  core  funding  to  their  grantees  so  that  they

that APC was involved in, and which centred around

had  the  flexibility  and  resources  to  adjust  to  the

the  intersection  of  digital  rights  with  environmental

new  realities  they  were  faced  with.18  Others,  like

and  climate  justice.23  The  research’s  primary  audi-

Ford  Foundation,  who  were  already  implementing

ences are grant makers and practitioners working in

a general support grant-making approach,19 did not

or  adjacent  to  the  digital  rights  sector  interested  in

have to adjust their strategies, but it became clear

understanding how to centre environmental and cli-

that  it  was  precisely  this  kind  of  support  that  civil

mate  justice  in  their  work,  or  environmental  justice

society  organisations  needed  most.  An  evaluation

funders  who  want  to  integrate  digital  technologies

report of the Ford Foundation’s BUILD Programme20

in  their  work.  Going  forward,  funders  in  the  digital

corroborated that, particularly in unpredictable and

rights space, as well as those working on other hu-

challenging  contexts,  “strengthening  institutions

man  rights  and  social  justice  issues,  are  looking  to

and  networks  leads  to  improved  programming  and

craft grant-making strategies that advance work on is-

impact – that is, to an increased number of programs

sues that converge with digital rights and make more

and/or improvements in their quality, strategic rele-

space for intersectional agendas.

vance and adaptability.”

There is an effort on the part of funders like the

Shifting modalities of how resources

Ford  Foundation  to  do  further  advocacy  in  wider

for digital rights are channelled

funding circles to encourage donors to move in the di-

rection of flexible, general support grant making. This

While  having  to  navigate  COVID-19,  civil  society

is  necessary  to  ensure  that  social  justice  organisa-

groups have continued to have to face multiple other

tions can be more resilient and impactful so they can

unrelated challenges. According to the  2022 State of

seize opportunities and take on further challenges.

21  UN Women. (2020, 1 July). Intersectional feminism: What it means

and why it matters right now. https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/

16  Fredrik Westerholm, personal communication, 1 August 2022.

stories/2020/6/explainer-intersectional-feminism-what-it-means-

17  https://oakfnd.org/programmes/issues-affecting-women

and-why-it-matters

18  Katarína Bartovicova, European Digital Rights initiative (EDRi),

22  Alberto Cerda Silva, personal communication, 13 July 2022.

personal communication, 28 June 2022.

23  Kazansky, B., Karak, M., Perosa, T., Tsui, Q., Baker, S., & The Engine

19  https://www.fordfoundation.org/work/our-grants/building

Room. (2022).  At the confluence of digital rights and climate &

-institutions-and-networks

environmental justice: A landscape review. https://engn.it/

20  Bisiaux, R., Dwyer-Voss, R., Bangser, M., Morales, S., Boateng, A.,

climatejusticedigitalrights; Association for Progressive

& Poli, F. (2022).  Final Report: BUILD Developmental Evaluation.

Communications. (2022).  At the Interstice of digital rights and

NIRAS. https://www.fordfoundation.org/media/7095/build-

environmental justice: Four issue briefs to inform funding. https://

evaluation-final-report.pdf

www.apc.org/en/node/38149

Thematic reports / 49

Civil Society Report from CIVICUS,24 we are living in

The  FCDO  sees  organisations  like  APC,  with

“a world characterised by crisis and volatility, where

a  wide  membership  network  and  ability  to  reach

regressive  forces  are  mobilising  a  fierce  backlash,

grassroots  organisations,  playing  a  crucial  role  as

but  where  dogged  civil  society  mobilisation  is  still

conduits  of  these  funds.28  A  representative  stated

winning  vital  battles.”  With  anti-rights  movements

that  the  FCDO  has  a  preference  for  working  with

and  repressive  governments  on  the  rise,  the  civic

such organisations as opposed to large contractors

space  for  civil  society,  particularly  groups  that  are

and consultancies that are from the global North, as

working  on  human  rights,  is  shrinking.  States  are

this brings value for money and long-term sustaina-

passing legislation, such as the Foreign Contribution

bility to their programming. Sida added that it was

Regulation  Act  (FCRA)25  in  India,  which  is  targeting

necessary for funders to be innovative in how they

NGOs  and  giving  government  tighter  control  and

disburse  their  funding  so  it  can  reach  less  visible

scrutiny  over  the  receipt  and  utilisation  of  foreign

players.29 This includes exploring mini-grants, inter-

funds by NGOs.

mediaries and diverse funding platforms.

Even  the  EU  is  finding  it  difficult  to  support

grassroots  organisations  in  the  country  as  sub-

Going forward

granting to smaller and informal groups has become

Even though the pandemic has highlighted the sig-

impossible (the FCRA requires every person or NGO

nificance of funding digital rights work, there is still a

seeking  to  receive  foreign  donations  to  be  regis-

knowledge gap around these issues among donors,

tered  under  the  Act  and  to  not  transfer  the  funds

particularly  those  who  are  not  directly  supporting

to  another  NGO).26 This  means  that  they  no  longer

this field or have several other competing priorities.

have the kind of outreach they had before, as they

The  lack  of  face-to-face  meetings  and  convenings

can only work through larger NGOs that have FCRA

during  the  pandemic  has  also  meant  fewer  spaces

registration  and  the  capacity  to  meet  the  eligibili-

for donors to connect with and learn about the work

ty requirements of the EU’s funding calls. One way

of civil society groups working on digital rights. As

that the EU is planning to get around this situation is

the opportunities for in-person convenings increase,

by channelling funding through international NGOs

there  is  a  need  for  digital  rights  organisations  to

who do not face FCRA restrictions and can make sub-

keep  the  important  role  of  the  digital  “simmering

grants. This  funding  strategy,  however,  defeats  the

and  alive”30  in  donor  circles  by  continuing  to  raise

donor’s own ethos to build capacity and resourcing

awareness  and  influence  the  debate  on  digital  de-

of local civil society groups. It also perpetuates the

velopment  so  that  funding  programmes  reflect  the

problematic  power  relations  between  civil  society

needs and priorities on ground. The FCDO represent-

in the global North and global South. International

ative highlighted the key role of meeting and sharing

NGOs are mostly headquartered in developed coun-

resources  and  research  with  donors  on  the  impact

tries, and their agendas are not necessarily the same

of  digital  technologies  on  important  and  emerging

as those of NGOs from the global South. “The world

issues.31  She  said  that  the  FCDO  did  not  support

of NGOs is not a network of equals but is based on a

community networks up until a few years ago, when

hierarchical power structure,”27 and these problem-

they  were  made  aware  of  community  networks  by

atic power relations are perpetuated when funding

APC  at  various  international  platforms.  Now  it  is  a

to  civil  society  groups  in  the  global  South  is  chan-

key part of their programming.

nelled through NGOs from the global North.

Donors  themselves  also  have  a  responsibility

In  this  context,  the  role  of  intermediaries  with

to  share  their  knowledge  and  learnings  with  each

strong global South connections has become key.

other, as better donor coordination could go a long

way  in  encouraging  collaboration  and  streamlining

efforts, providing the needed funding opportunities

for  the  digital  sector,  which  has  multiple  gaps  and

challenges and is evolving very quickly.

24  Firmin, A., Pousadela, I. M., & Tiwana, M. (2022).  2022 State of Civil

Society Report. CIVICUS. https://www.civicus.org/documents/

reports-and-publications/SOCS/2022/CIVICUS2022SOCSReport.pdf

25  Tiwary, D. (2022, 14 July). Explained: What is FCRA, the

law related to NGO funding?  The Indian Express. https://

indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/

what-is-fcra-ngo-funding-mha-explained-8026895

26  Renuka Srinivasan, personal communication, 14 July 2022.

28  Alessandra Lustrati, personal communication, 1 August 2022.

27  Sorj, B. (2015).  Civil Societies North South Relations:

NGOs and Dependency. The Edelstein Centre for Social

29  Fredrik Westerholm, personal communication, 1 August 2022.

Research .  https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/

30  Renuka Srinivasan, personal communication, 14 July 2022.

download?doi=10.1.1.521.7257&rep=rep1&type=pdf

31  Alessandra Lustrati, personal communication, 1 August 2022.

50  /  Global Information Society Watch

Organising for sustainable connectivity:

Centring communities in crisis

Shawna Finnegan and APC Environmental Sustainability

This  report  explores  historical,  ongoing  and

Working Group

emerging  work  across  the  APC  network  to  organ-

Association for Progressive Communications (APC)

ise  for  meaningful  and  sustainable  connectivity,

centring  communities  in  crisis.  APC  values  and  up-

lifts  the  power  of  connected  communities  working

Introduction

through decentralised action – it is at this level that

the core of a sustainable response to any future cri-

COVID-19, like many crises, has revealed foundation-

sis such as COVID-19 needs to be built.

al flaws in our global systems of governance. In the

West, the governments of wealthier countries have

Feminist, circular and community-led: APC

hoarded vaccines, refused to waive intellectual prop-

perspectives on sustainable connectivity

erty  rights,  enforced  unjust  travel  bans,  and  failed

APC’s strategic priority to contribute to environmen-

to  fund  resilient  public  health  care.  In  many  other

tal justice and preservation of the earth5 emphasises

regions  of  the  world,  governments  are  unable  to

the need to address the negative environmental im-

protect and defend rights, are under-resourced and

pacts of digital infrastructure, while also supporting

overwhelmed by debt, and are systemically bound1

the strategic use of digital technologies for environ-

to the logics of colonial extractivism.2

mental monitoring. These twin challenges are framed

For many people living with the realities of crisis

by APC’s commitment to working towards a feminist

on a daily basis, the systems that govern our world

internet6  “in  which  women  and  people  of  diverse

have largely failed, and governments have not lived

sexualities and genders are able to access and en-

up to their responsibilities as duty bearers. Instead,

joy a free and open internet to exercise agency and

our collective planetary resilience increasingly relies

autonomy, build collective power, strengthen move-

on community-led action and solidarity.3

ments, and transform power relations for gender and

In  crises,  safe  and  resilient  communications

sexual justice.”

infrastructure  becomes  ever  more  critical  for  com-

Over  the  past  three  years,  APC’s  Environmen-

munities to respond effectively and collectively care

tal Sustainability Working Group has engaged our

for each other, ourselves and the planet. Communi-

network in the discourse of environmental justice,

ties currently living with climate catastrophe cannot

advocated  for  internet  governance  actors  to  ad-

afford  to  wait  for  external  actors  to  bring  about

dress  the  environmental  impacts  of  the  internet,7

meaningful and sustainable connectivity; they must

developed an evolving guide to a circular economy

be able to connect themselves.4

of digital devices,8 supported the ongoing develop-

ment of a feminist principle of the internet on the

environment,9 and implemented a pilot grant using

1  Schalk, O. (2022, 4 July). Documents show how Ottawa intervened

in Tanzania to benefit Canadian mining firms.  Canadian Dimension.

https://canadiandimension.com/articles/view/documents-show-

how-ottawa-intervened-in-tanzania-to-benefit-canadian-mining-firm

5  https://www.apc.org/en/strategicpriorities2020_2023#6

2  Niang, A. (2019, 17 August). The colonial origins of extractivism in

6  https://www.apc.org/en/strategicpriorities2020_2023#3

Africa.  Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/8/17/

7  https://www.intgovforum.org/multilingual/content/igf-2020-pre-

the-colonial-origins-of-extractivism-in-africa

event-32-environmental-justice-and-an-anti-extractive-internet-

3  Carstensen, N., Mudhar, M, & Schurmann Munksgaard, F. (2021).

impacting-policy

‘Let communities do their work’: the role of mutual aid and self-help

8  https://circulartech.apc.org

groups in the Covid-19 pandemic response.  Disasters, 45(Suppl 1).

9  Radloff, J. (2022, 2 September). Towards a new feminist principle

https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12515

of the internet on the environment: Two new publications now

4  https://www.apc.org/en/project/connecting-unconnected-

available in English.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/news/towards-

supporting-community-networks-and-other-community-based-

new-feminist-principle-internet-environment-two-new-publications-

connectivity

now-available-english

Thematic reports / 51

participatory approaches to project design, facili-

e-waste into Africa, and in 2021, CITAD developed a

tation and assessment.

case study on mobile repair in Nigeria.12

As  we  move  forward,  APC’s  collective  action

In rural communities of Nigeria, Fantsuam Foun-

for environmental justice and preservation of the

dation  has  implemented  several  environmental

earth is grounded by the local action of members,

initiatives, using repaired and recycled computers

partners,  allies  and  staff,  and  ongoing  insight

and  renewable  energy  sources,  and  supporting

into  the  possibilities  for  feminist,  circular  and

knowledge  exchange  for  climate  adaptation  and

community-led  connectivity  that  serves  environ-

food security.13

mental justice.

In 2022, the Media Awareness and Justice Initi-

ative (MAJI) officially joined the APC network as an

Africa

organisational member, operating in the Niger Delta

In  Africa,  where  meaningful  connectivity  is  an

region.  MAJI’s  Soot  Mapping  project14  aims  to  sup-

ongoing  struggle  for  many  communities,  APC

port a sustainable community network through the

members  have  taken  diverse  approaches  in  re-

use of citizen science methodologies and free/libre

sponse to the twin challenges of digital exclusion

open source software technology to address air pol-

and environmental injustice.

lution in the region.15

Arid  Lands  Information  Network  (ALIN)  was

In  Mankosi,  in  the  Eastern  Cape  of  South  Afri-

first conceived in 1987 at a cross-regional work-

ca, APC member Zenzeleni Networks is operating a

shop  in  Benin  to  facilitate  an  exchange  of  ideas

Solar  Learning  Lab  with  the  help  of  Computer  Aid,

to improve agricultural practices in regions expe-

an  APC  member  located  in  the  UK.  Computer  Aid

riencing water scarcity. Over the past 30 years it

first  launched  the  Solar  Learning  Lab  initiative  in

has  evolved  from  a  project  of  Oxfam  in  Senegal

2011. The joint project between Zenzeleni Networks

to a regional network headquartered in Kenya. In

and  Computer  Aid  includes  a  documented  process

2007,  ALIN  began  a  new  project  to  set  up  com-

to  learn  and  evaluate  the  outcomes  of  deploying

munity  Maarifa  Centres  (Knowledge  Centres)

solar-powered learning lab infrastructure with com-

with  information  and  communications  technol-

munity networks.16

ogy  (ICT)  equipment  and  training  programmes

designed to ensure that all community members

Asia

can  access  the  information,  skills  and  technolo-

In Asia, where communities are already experiencing

gies that they need.10

some of the worst effects of the climate catastrophe,

In  Cameroon,  PROTEGE  QV  has  been  working

and where e-waste is growing faster than in any oth-

since  1995  to  promote  and  support  individual

er  region  worldwide,  APC  members  are  nurturing

and  collective  initiatives  to  protect  the  environ-

partnerships  and  coalitions  to  foster  meaningful

ment and improve the well-being of communities.

connectivity and climate adaptation.

PROTEGE  QV  has  implemented  projects  to  sup-

Digital  Empowerment  Foundation  (DEF),  based

port,  inform  and  empower  local  communities  in

in  India,  has  long  focused  on  grounded  action  for

response  to  changing  climates,  including  design-

digital  inclusion  and  environmental  sustainability.

ing and developing more efficient cookstoves and

In 2009, DEF and APC developed a baseline study of

developing resource kits that can be used by com-

e-waste in India, analysing global, regional and na-

munity radios in Cameroon.11

tional policy contexts. The report also explored civil

In  Nigeria,  APC  members  are  working  with

communities  to  use  technology  strategically  for

environmental  sustainability  and  address  the  en-

12  Ya’u, Y. Z. (2021). GSM Repairers Association: Building capacity

and creating opportunities for mobile repairers in Nigeria. In A.

vironmental  impacts  of  e-waste.  The  Centre  for

Finlay (Ed.),  A guide to the circular economy of digital devices.

Information  Technology  and  Development  (CIT-

APC. https://circulartech.apc.org/books/a-guide-to-the-circular-

AD)  joined  the  APC  Environmental  Sustainability

economy-of-digital-devices/page/case-study-gsm-repairers-

association-building-capacity-and-creating-opportunities-for-

Working Group in 2019 and has been an active con-

mobile-repairers-in-nigeria

tributor to the APC guide to a circular economy of

13  https://www.apc.org/en/greenit_apc_initiatives#mozTocId622594

digital devices. CITAD has emphasised the need for

14  https://datacab.org/soot-mapping-project

regional action in response to the illegal import of

15  Prado, D. (2022, 13 September). Seeding change: Communities

mobilise open data to challenge oil industry pollution in Nigeria.

APC. https://www.apc.org/en/node/38246

16  Espinosa, A. (2021). Computer Aid’s Solar Learning Lab:

Sustainable, scalable and adaptable to local needs. In A. Finlay

10  APCNews. (2009, 10 June). “Cybercafé in a container”: Rural

(Ed.),  A guide to the circular economy of digital devices. APC.

Kenya’s mobile internet stations.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/

https://circulartech.apc.org/books/a-guide-to-the-circular-

news/cybercafe-container-rural-kenyas-mobile-internet-s

economy-of-digital-devices/page/case-study-computer-aids-solar-

11  https://www.apc.org/en/greenit_apc_initiatives#mozTocId622594

learning-lab-sustainable-scalable-and-adaptable-to-local-needs

52  /  Global Information Society Watch

society initiatives to address e-waste, and highlight-

the  forest  against  extractivism.21  Recognising  this

ed  the  need  for  multistakeholder  engagement  and

need,  APC  member  Rhizomatica  is  working  with

networking.  In  2020-2021,  DEF  co-led  the  develop-

isolated  communities  in  Latin  America  to  set  up

ment of APC’s guide to a circular economy of digital

digital  communication  systems  based  on  high  fre-

devices, contributing case studies and policy analy-

quency  (HF)  shortwave  radio.  The  High-frequency

sis from the region.17

Emergency and Rural Multimedia Exchange System

From Taiwan, Open Culture Foundation (OCF) is

(HERMES)  developed  by  Rhizomatica  is  capable  of

collaborating with groups around the world to help

connecting  communities  across  hundreds  of  kilo-

local  communities  install  and  operate  open  source

metres, creating secure exchange points to send and

environmental sensors. OCF launched Civic Sense18

receive information.22

in 2021 and is collaborating with several APC mem-

In  Central  America,  Sulá  Batsú  is  supporting

bers in the project, including MAJI in Nigeria and the

women  leaders  engaging  in  sustainable  entrepre-

Society for the Promotion of Alternative Computing

neurship,  building  digital  business  models  “that

and  Employment,  Kerala  (SPACE  Kerala)  in  India.

are  not  predatory  and  extractivist.”23  Sulá  Batsú

SPACE  Kerala  is  working  to  improve  water  quali-

has  offered  workshops  on  e-waste,  extraction  of

ty  monitoring  in  the  Nallathanni  River  in  Munnar,

minerals and energy consumption for digital tech-

partnering with the local community to operate and

nologies, and facilitated ongoing conversations to

maintain water boxes provided through the OCF Civic

support  women  entrepreneurs  to  actively  engage

Sense project.19

with  these  issues  and  address  emerging  threats

In  Bangladesh,  APC  members  have  developed

and challenges.

research  and  undertaken  advocacy  to  address

In Colombia, Colnodo has emphasised environ-

the  impacts  of  electronic  waste.  In  2021,  Voices

mental sustainability as a cross-cutting priority since

for  Interactive  Choice  and  Empowerment  (VOICE)

its  foundation,  and  for  more  than  20  years  it  has

convened  an  event  in  Dhaka  to  discuss  e-waste

operated the Red de Desarrollo Sostenible (Sustain-

management  and  environmental  sustainability  in

able Development Network), originally an initiative

Bangladesh,  bringing  together  government  repre-

of  the  United  Nations  Development  Programme

sentatives,  leaders  of  environmental  movements,

(UNDP) and the Colombian Ministry of Environment.

NGOs,  teachers  and  journalists.  Speakers  at  the

Colnodo has also been involved in coordinating the

event  emphasised  the  need  for  collaboration  and

publication of environmental data with the Environ-

public-private partnerships to support repair, recy-

mental Observatory for Bogotá and the Bogotá River.

cling and e-waste management.20

In addition, Colnodo actively participated in the de-

velopment  of  APC’s  guide  to  a  circular  economy  of

The Americas

digital  devices  and  contributed  a  case  study  that

In  Latin  America  and  the  Caribbean,  social  move-

explores  the  management  of  e-waste  in  Colombia

ments  and  community-led  resistance  to  extractive

through the Computadores para Educar (Computers

practices are grounding the work of the APC network

for Schools) initiative.24

to support meaningful and sustainable connectivity.

Nodo  TAU,  based  in  Rosario  in  Argentina,  has

In  the  Amazon  rainforest,  many  communities

worked  to  repair  and  reuse  donated  computers

cannot  rely  on  broadband  or  even  mobile  inter-

for almost 20 years as part of their commitment to

net  access  to  communicate  across  distances.  As

digital  inclusion.  In  2003,  Nodo  TAU  began  work-

illegal  logging,  deforestation  and  mining  threaten

ing with local organisations to set up a network of

ecosystems,  these  communities  must  find  ways  to

communicate safely in order to monitor and defend

21  Bloom, P., & Brock, N. (2020). Digital communications to build

autonomy and combat ecocide. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  Global Information

Society Watch 2020: Technology, the environment and a sustainable

17  Kazi, S., & Pratap, T. (2021). Transitioning to the circular economy

world. APC. https://www.giswatch.org/index.php/node/6227

in the South Asia region: A phased policy approach for Bangladesh,

22  Romano, M. (2022, 11 August). Seeding change: Rhizomatica’s high

India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  A guide to the

frequency radio showcases the power of communication in remote

circular economy of digital devices. APC. https://circulartech.apc.

regions of the Amazon.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/node/38186

org/books/a-guide-to-the-circular-economy-of-digital-devices/

23  APCNews. (2022). Seeding change: Environmental sustainability

page/case-study-transitioning-to-the-circular-economy-in-the-

and the need to strengthen female leadership.  APC. https://www.

south-asia-region-a-phased-policy-approach-for-bangladesh-india-

apc.org/en/node/37911

sri-lanka-and-pakistan

24  Casasbuenas, J. (2021). Computadores para Educar: Ensuring

18  https://ocf.tw/en/p/civicsense

circularity through managing e-waste properly in a computers-for-

19  Ibid.

schools initiative. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  A guide to the circular economy

20  Staravis. (2021, 6 July). Demand for implementation of e-waste

of digital devices. APC. https://circulartech.apc.org/books/a-

management rules in Bangladesh.  VOICE. https://voicebd.

guide-to-the-circular-economy-of-digital-devices/page/case-study-

org/2021/07/06/demand-for-implementation-of-e-waste-

computadores-para-educar-ensuring-circularity-through-managing-

management-rules-in-bangladesh

e-waste-properly-in-a-computers-for-schools-initiative

Thematic reports / 53

telecentres, using donated computer equipment. As

refurbish  and  reuse  electronics.29 The  eReuse  initi-

the  project  developed,  Nodo  TAU  began  to  receive

ative first began in 2013, launching a campaign for

large donations of computers that could not be re-

computer donations in 2015. Since then, the eReuse

paired, and in 2008 they joined a project to set up

network  has  processed  more  than  10,000  comput-

an e-waste management plant in Rosario.25 In 2021,

ers,  which  has  benefited  families,  schools,  public

Colnodo  and  Nodo TAU  collaborated  to  develop  an

facilities  and  NGOs,  and  supported  local  social  in-

online Moodle course in Spanish on ICTs and the en-

clusion and participation.

vironment, and are preparing to expand the course

In  Eastern  Europe,  BlueLink  Foundation  has

in the future.26

continued  to  focus  on  climate  and  environmental

In  Brazil,  APC  member  Intervozes  is  working

issues  in  the  region,  including  projects  to  improve

with Coordenação Nacional de Comunidades Negras

communication  and  learning  between  journalists

Rurais  Quilombolas  (CONAQ)  and  Movimento  de

and scientists and fostering policy change to bring

Mulheres Trabalhadoras Rurais do Nordeste (MMTR-

Bulgarian  legislation  in  line  with  European  climate

NE)  to  build  solidarity  networks  through  collective

legislation.  In  2021,  BlueLink  joined  APC  staff  and

mapping  and  conceptualising  of  ICTs  by  quilom-

consultants in the development of four issues briefs

bola  and  rural  communities  in  northeastern  Brazil.

on  climate  justice  and  digital  rights,30  including  a

Intervozes is also working with Indigenous commu-

brief exploring the interplay between environmental

nities in the Guarani territories in São Paulo to build

and internet governance, inspired by BlueLink’s ex-

protocols  for  internet  use  and  improve  access.27  In

perience with regional bodies and policy processes.

other  regions  of  the  country,  another  APC  member

In the UK, APC founding member GreenNet31 has

in  Brazil,  Nupef,  is  partnering  with  local  communi-

increasingly  focused  on  reducing  the  environmen-

ties to design and deploy community-based internet

tal  harms  of  internet  service  provision,  responding

infrastructure  and  community  networks  that  help

to  growing  requests  for  environmentally  conscious

these  communities  defend  their  territories  against

web design.

extractivism and fight for their rights.28

Cross-cutting priorities for technology

Europe

and the planet

In Europe, where internet penetration is among the

APC’s  Environmental  Sustainability  Working  Group

highest on the planet, and where the European Un-

has  identified  four  cross-cutting  priorities  for  sus-

ion is seen as a leader in legislative and regulatory

tainable connectivity:

responses to environmental harm, the APC network

is  working  with  local  communities  to  repair  and

1. Centering the sovereignty and rights of

transform infrastructure to work for the planet.

Indigenous peoples and traditional communities

In Catalunya, APC member Pangea is harnessing

Indigenous  peoples  and  traditional  communities

the power of networked action through eReuse.org,

have the right to make decisions about if and how

a  project  and  community  that  promotes  and  facil-

ICTs  are  used  in  their  communities,  and  to  defend

itates  local  autonomous  open  platforms  to  repair,

against ICT development that threatens their rights

and  the  rights  of  nature.  APC  supports  Indigenous

data sovereignty – the rights of Indigenous people

to govern the collection, ownership and application

25  Roveri, F. (2021). Planta de Gestión de Residuos Informáticos: The

long and challenging road in setting up an e-waste recycling plant

of data.

in Argentina. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  A guide to the circular economy of

digital devices. APC. https://circulartech.apc.org/books/a-guide-

2. Supporting digital safety and care, rooted in

to-the-circular-economy-of-digital-devices/page/case-study-planta-

de-gestion-de-residuos-informaticos-the-long-and-challenging-

communities of practice

road-in-setting-up-an-e-waste-recycling-plant-in-argentina

Holistic  digital  safety  and  care  are  growing  prior-

26  Red de Desarrollo Sostenible. (2021, 19 February). Usando las

Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación – TIC para el cuidado

ities  for  environmental  justice  movements.  The

ambiental. https://rds.org.co/es/novedades/usando-las-

tecnologias-de-informacion-y-comunicacion-tic-para-el-cuidado-

ambiental-2

29  Navarro, L. (2021). eReuse: Building reuse circuits for social

27  Intervozes, CONAQ, & MMTR/NE. (2021, 5 October). Lived

inclusion. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  A guide to the circular economy of

experience and connection: Networks of knowledge produced by

digital devices. APC. https://circulartech.apc.org/books/a-

Black and rural women through the Territórios Livres, Tecnologias

guide-to-the-circular-economy-of-digital-devices/page/

Livres project.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/news/lived-

case-study-ereuse-building-reuse-circuits-for-social-inclusion

experience-and-connection-networks-knowledge-produced-black-

30  APC. (2022).  At the interstice of digital rights and environmental

and-rural-women-through

justice: Four issue briefs to inform funding. Ford Foundation,

28  APCNews. (2021). Seeding change: Nupef works with community

Ariadne and Mozilla Foundation. https://www.apc.org/en/

networks to support the right to communication of traditional

node/38149

communities in Brazil.  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/node/37531

31  https://www.greennet.org.uk

54  /  Global Information Society Watch

global pandemic has forced many community organ-

degradation,  pollution  and  disaster.  APC  centres

isers  to  adapt  to  working  with  and  through  digital

these  voices  and  experiences  in  our  research  and

technologies,  often  with  little  support  for  secure

advocacy, and supports APC members working with

communications. APC’s research suggests many en-

communities  to  provide  meaningful  and  sustaina-

vironmental  organisations  and  movements  do  not

ble connectivity.

have digital safety policies and practices in place.

Conclusion

3. Integrating work towards social and economic

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed stark realities

justice and digital inclusion

in  the  failures  of  governments  and  corporations  to

The APC network supports initiatives to repair, refur-

prevent, address and remedy the violation of human

bish and redistribute digital devices, working closely

rights and the rights of nature.32 In our global infor-

with community networks and local social enterpris-

mation  society,  meaningful  connectivity  continues

es  for  digital  inclusion.  At  the  same  time,  APC  is

to  be  an  enormous  challenge  for  many  communi-

working with partners to understand the impacts of

ties,  and  demands  for  “transition  minerals”  and

extractivism and manufacturing on the health of eco-

“green  technologies”  pose  huge  risks  for  our  al-

systems and human labour.

ready  fragile  ecosystems.  The  APC  Environmental

Sustainability  Working  Group  acknowledges  that

4. Working against environmental injustice in the

there  is  no  one-size-fits-all  solution  for  building  a

governance of digital technologies

sustainable internet. We are committed to centring

Individuals  and  communities  that  are  affected  by

communities  in  crisis  and  organising  through  joint

racism,  exclusion,  discrimination  and  inequality

action  and  learning  for  sustainable  connectivity  in

are  disproportionately  impacted  by  ecosystem

all its complexity.

32  Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2022, 23

March). COVID-19 and human rights https://www.ohchr.org/en/

stories/2020/03/covid-19-and-human-rights

Thematic reports / 55

A feminist backpack for crises: Care-fullness,

messiness and responsive knowledge

Nyx McLean, in conversation with Jennifer Radloff,

a result of the pandemic, while others which had pri-

Namita Aavriti and Smita V.

marily been offline had to do a hard pivot to online.

Association for Progressive Communications (APC)

Smita,  who  had  joined  the  APC  WRP  in  March

www.apc.org

2021, spoke about how they had started work on a

new project, and the impact the pandemic had on in-

itiating this project. For instance, they shared that it

Introduction

took longer to establish relationships online in con-

trast to “the connection that physical space builds.”

“The world is suddenly and radically changed,”1 the

Online  connection,  Smita  said,  “is  very  different,”

Association  for  Progressive  Communications  Wom-

and the absence of physical space can “cause very

en’s  Rights  Programme  (APC  WRP)  wrote  in  April

subtle  delays  and  impacts  in  building  networks.”

2020 in an open letter to their friends and partners.

It  is  “knowledge  that  you  can  only  gain  when  you

COVID-19  and  responses  to  the  pandemic  asked

experience it for yourself and when your body expe-

that people move online, and with this came an in-

riences it.” Embodiment is a challenge to movement

tensification around issues that had already had the

building in the digital age or during moments of cri-

attention  of  feminists  and  digital  rights  activists.

sis when movements must move online.

Some of these issues included online gender-based

The embodiment of space continued to emerge

violence, other forms of online violence, data extrac-

in  our  conversation  as  critical  to  establishing  con-

tion and surveillance.

nections. Namita shared her experience of how the

This  conversation  with  APC  WRP  team  mem-

move from offline to online “worked really well with

bers  Jennifer  Radloff,  Namita  Aavriti  and  Smita  V.2

groups  that  were  connected  beforehand  because

is supplemented by observations from the Feminist

[…] ‘We’ve met you, and I’ve seen you in a physical

Internet  Research  Network  (FIRN)  meta-research

space, I have a connection with you,’” whereas “with

project3 that APC coordinated, and is only a glance at

new people, I was never quite sure it was working.”

their experience of the pandemic, new concerns and

Here  this  is  speaking  to  how  the  online  appeared

priorities  that  emerged,  the  lessons  they  learned

to work better with people who had already estab-

from the pandemic, and what they would like to take

lished a connection offline in face-to-face meetings

forward in a feminist backpack for future work and

because  of  what  an  embodied  physical  space  pro-

moments of crisis.

vides, whereas for those who had not met previously,

Online versus offline

the move to online created a challenge.4

The  offline-online  binary  also  had  an  impact

The move to online had an impact on organising, net-

on  teaching  people  how  to  use  technology.  Smita

work building, how we think about community and

flagged how when one is working with people “who

belonging, our sense of embodiment, how we think

are very new to technology […] there is a very strong

about participation, and how we think about and ac-

value-add that happens when you teach them how to

tivate care. Some projects had to be put on hold as

use [it] in person.” There is a link between teaching

in person, and “the confidence they get in how they

relate to the devices, and this takes more time on-

1  APC Women’s Rights Programme. (2020, 23 April). An open letter

to friends and partners.  GenderIT.org. https://genderit.org/

line,” they explained.

resources/open-letter-friends-and-partners

2  The WRP team members will be referred to by their first names

throughout this report.

3  McLean, N. (2022a).  Feminist Internet Research Network:

4  This is supported by research work such as, for example: Dijkstra,

Meta-research project report. Association for Progressive

K., & Post, L. (2015). Mechanisms of embodiment.  Frontiers in

Communications. https://www.apc.org/en/node/38022

Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01525

56  /  Global Information Society Watch

“Any delay which happens in building this confi-

this is something that is needed in response to fu-

dence around technology directly means that certain

ture  moments  of  crisis  –  care-full7  consideration

communities  get  left  behind,”  they  added.  This  is

around technology that is used, access to technolo-

another  challenge  to  address  when  people  are  ex-

gy, and training for better use of the technology. This

pected to move online during moments of crisis.5

is also a call for greater reflexivity and consideration

The means to connect was not available to every-

about  our  privilege,  positionality  and  power  when

one due to the enormous digital and resource divides

we propose solutions to moments of crisis.

in  the  world,  which  continue  to  disadvantage  and

grow worse in the global South.6 Not everyone had the

Surveillance

means to connect online, but some donors responded

COVID-19 saw an increase the development of apps

to the pandemic by expanding the budget to include

in response to the pandemic and in attempts to con-

covering tech needs such as “infrastructure, devices

tain its spread. Many of these apps were flagged for

and  access,”  as  Jennifer  shared.  One  response  was

issues around “data collection, transparency of the

to “build packages of laptops and devices to send [to

data collected and the data stored,” Smita shared.

people struggling to get online] so they could partici-

There was also “no actual evidence of any of these

pate fully,” she explained. “The reality of what COVID

apps  actually  working  in  controlling  the  infection

and the lockdown were showing is that you can’t par-

rate,” they said. What these apps did do was raise

ticipate if you don’t have devices,” Jennifer stressed.

concerns around surveillance and how data is being

Here  we  see  the  emergence  of  another  priority:  the

used.8 The APC WRP in their open letter drew atten-

need to understand tech and infrastructure needs in

tion  to  “surveillance  and  [the]  expansion  of  state

order to ensure greater participation online.

power” during the pandemic.9

Namita spoke of an “uptick in surveillance gen-

Access and barriers to use

erally,”  how  apartments  and  gated  communities

Many people were excluded and left out with the move

were using “complex software that tracks people,”

to online. As Smita put it, “Anything and everything

and how access to homes and places of work “was

related to COVID [was] suddenly online.” Even though

so much more controlled” during the pandemic. Be-

there  were  expectations  that  people  move  online,

cause  of  the  pandemic,  she  said,  there  were  “new

“there were [few] provisions made for actually allow-

pieces of software that were floated around as solu-

ing for free internet, free data,” they added.

tions, all of which, frankly, look bad.” An increase in

Another  example  of  barriers  to  use  came  from

surveillance during a moment of crisis may not see

Jennifer,  who  shared  how  she  noticed  that  older

surveillance  levels  return  to  pre-crisis  levels.10  We

people were “completely helpless without a smart-

need  to  be  critical  of  increases  in  surveillance  and

phone and completely locked out of systems,” such

question how data extracted during a crisis like COV-

as when they wanted to get vaccinated. Health care

ID-19 is being stored and used, and how the data will

workers  such  as  nurses  also  “couldn’t  work  the

be destroyed afterwards, if at all.

software  that  they  needed  to  use  in  order  to  track

everything.”  This  raised  concerns  around  technol-

Feminist infrastructures

ogy  and  intergenerational  conversations,  and  how

In  addition  to  questioning  how  our  data  gets  used,

the  technology  used  and  adopted  without  training

we  need  to  question  the  kind  of  technology  we  use,

harmed those who were “really good” at their jobs.

and  to  challenge  our  preconceptions  of  this  tech-

This barrier to access, especially for those with

nology.11  Jennifer  was  critical  of  what  she  called  “the

little  to  no  knowledge  of  technologies,  showed  an

ownership  and  control  of  the  existing  northern  male,

absence  of  care  in  response  to  the  pandemic,  and

7  A deliberate choice to write as “care-full” instead of “careful”.

5  Research has documented this in relation to online learning and shown

that in-person availability of a trainer removed many of the barriers

8  van Zyl, I., & McLean, N. (2021). The Ethical Implications of Digital

to learning such as timely feedback, support services, understanding

Contact Tracing For LGBTQIA+ Communities.  Proceedings of the

instructions. See, for example: Marcial, D. E., Caballero, R. D. B.,

1st Virtual Conference on Implications of Information and Digital

Rendal, J. B., & Patrimonio, G. A. (2015). “I am offline”: measuring

Technologies for Development. https://www.mn.uio.no/ifi/english/

barriers to open online learning in the Philippines.  Інформаційні

research/groups/is/ifip-94/proceedings-virtual-conference-2021/

технології і засоби навчання,  45, 1, 28-41.

all-papers/zylmclean.pdf

6  Power, T. (2020).  The gender digital divide and COVID-19: Towards

9  APC Women’s Rights Programme. (2020, 23 April). Op. cit.

feminist internet regulations in southern Africa. APC. https://www.

10  van Zyl, I., & McLean, N. (2021). Op. cit.

apc.org/en/node/36718; Ragnedda, M., & Gladkova, A. (2020).

11  Lim, S. (2022, 7 March). Misogyny as a commodity in digital spaces.

Digital Inequalities in the Global South. Springer International

GenderIT.org. https://genderit.org/articles/misogyny-commodity-

Publishing; United Nations. (2021, 27 April). With Almost Half of

digital-spaces; Sanjuan Mejia, L. (2020, 12 November). Feminists are World’s Population Still Offline, Digital Divide Risks Becoming

building their own technology to organise but where are funders?

‘New Face of Inequality’, Deputy Secretary-General Warns General

GenderIT.org. https://www.genderit.org/feminist-talk/feminists-are-

Assembly. https://press.un.org/en/2021/dsgsm1579.doc.htm

building-their-own-technology-organise-where-are-funders-0

Thematic reports / 57

white  infrastructure.”  She  proposed  that  we  look  to

discussed earlier, it is important that we give consid-

“alternative  structures”  like  “feminist  infrastructures”

eration not only to care as it relates to the individual

instead  of  relying  on  the  Googles  and  Zooms  of  the

self, but also to what it means for the collective. As

world.  During  the  pandemic  there  were  instances  of

Jennifer shared, it is also important to “reimagin[e]

violence experienced in spaces such as Zoom. Namita

what it looks like when it is an online space.”

said that the pandemic was “definitely a turning point

[…] in the sense of taking [online violence] far more se-

Digital safety

riously.” Jennifer shared that in response to instances

We all added digital safety to our backpack, because

of violence, APC shaped their approaches by focusing

it was apparent in our discussions around online vi-

on online digital safety training, and more awareness of

olence and its consequences for vulnerable groups

data extraction, of surveillance, and of misinformation

that there is a need for better digital safety and train-

and disinformation. In addition to this, Jennifer said that

ing  in  this  area.  Previous  conversations  with  FIRN

it was important to “question the systems and the poli-

partners saw digital safety as an aspect of care for

tics and the power and the privilege underneath it.” It is

ourselves  as  digital  rights  defenders,  activists  and

critical that we continue to critique, challenge and inter-

researchers,  as  well  as  for  our  research  partners,

rogate the power that informs the technologies we use.

project participants and communities.

There is a need for feminist infrastructures which

are “shareable with partners and comrades,” Smita

Listening and exchange of experiences

said. It is important, they said, to give consideration

Jennifer  added  “storytelling  and  listening”  to  our

to “how accessible the software is, especially when

backpack. She shared that during the pandemic she

working  with  partners  who  have  low  connectivity

found that it “was really important being part of APC

[or]  restrictions  on  data.”  Care  is  something  that

and listening to what people were going through in

emerged  from  our  conversation,  as  well  as  in  the

different  contexts,”  and  that  it  was  critical  to  find

FIRN project. Care needs to be prioritised going for-

“ways of exchange, of understanding, of knowledge,

ward,  whether  in  moments  of  crisis  or  not.  Namita

of strategies, of tactics.”

shared that care needs to be extended beyond the

self and there “needs to be a movement to collective

Embracing messiness

forms of care in a more serious way.”

What  we  called  “messiness”  emerged  from  this

From these lessons we gave consideration to a

conversation and also conversations with partners13

feminist  backpack  for  future  work  and  future  mo-

during  the  FIRN  project.  Messiness  asks  that  we

ments of crisis.

learn,  as  Jennifer  shared,  “to  sit  with  discomfort,

face  it,  confront  it,  and  even  if  you  don’t  have  the

A feminist backpack for future work

words, just to try.” Smita added that messiness was

and moments of crisis

about letting go of rigid ways of doing things, and

In  concluding  our  conversation,  Jennifer,  Namita,

to “allow for fluidity and dynamicness in movement

Smita and I imagined what we would need to carry

building, in digital security, in workshops.”

with  us  from  our  experience  of  the  pandemic,  and

the work in APC WRP and on FIRN, that could serve

Responsive knowledge

our  future  work  and  help  us  respond  to  moments

Responsive  knowledge  building,  and  “making”

of crisis. We decided to think of it as a backpack in

and  “sharing”,  was  added  to  our  backpack.  Gen-

which to carry the tools, resources and values with

derIT.org14 was given as an example of “responsive

us. In this backpack we have placed: care – self and

knowledge”  because,  as  Jennifer  said,  it  produces

collective;  digital  safety;  listening  and  exchange

“that kind of knowledge from contextual knowledge

of  experiences;  embracing  messiness;  responsive

that  comes  out  quickly  and  can  be  discussed  and

knowledge; and reflexivity.

archived and made real.” Namita referred to this ap-

proach of knowledge building, making and sharing

Care – self and collective

as “knowledge that is not straightjacketed.” It is im-

Care emerged as a central theme. We see this in mul-

portant that the knowledge we produce and share is

tiple responses from APC and partners.12 As Namita

responsive and accessible to as many as possible.

12  APC Women’s Rights Programme. (2020, 23 April). Op. cit.;

Association for Progressive Communications. (2020).  Closer than

ever: Keeping our movements connected and inclusive – APC’s

13  McLean, N. (2022a). Op. cit.; McLean, N. (2022b). Feminist internet

response to the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.apc.org/sites/

research is messy. In Aavriti, N., Hussen, T. S., & Fossatti, M. (Eds),

default/files/closerthanever_pp.pdf; Transfeminist Network of Feminist by Design: APRIA Journal Issue 4.  https://apria.artez.nl/

Digital Care. (2022).  Digital care for feminist activists. APC. https://

feminist-internet-research-is-messy

www.apc.org/en/digital-care-feminist-activists;

14  https://genderit.org

58  /  Global Information Society Watch

Reflexivity

of  learning,  of  leaning  into  the  uncomfortable,

The final item to be added to our backpack was that

and hopefully rethinking and reimagining the way

of reflexivity. Reflexivity emerged out of this conver-

that  we  work,  live  and  respond  to  each  other  and

sation  and  the  conversations  with  FIRN  partners.

ourselves. The conversation above is in no way ex-

Reflexivity creates space for us to consider our current

haustive – but it is a glimpse into new challenges,

contexts, our experiences, and how we can imagine

concerns, priorities, lessons learned and approach-

things differently. It is exceptionally useful as a way

es, such as those found in the feminist backpack.

forward in terms of movement building, creating safe

We live in a world that faces numerous challenges

spaces and holding space. It is a useful tool for learn-

such as structural inequalities, moments of crisis,

ing and adapting to moments of change and crisis.

and those ongoing, such as the climate crisis. We

need to give consideration to the work we do, the

Conclusion

tools we use, and how we can be responsive from a

The  COVID-19  pandemic  was  a  moment  of  crisis

space of care and safety that ensures that nobody

that asked a great deal of all of us. It was a moment

is left out.

Thematic reports / 59

Internet governance of the future

Anriette Esterhuysen1 and Wim Degezelle2

David  Souter  recently  described  this  period  as

a  time  when  internet  governance  was  “bright  and

shiny”,  when  “new  technologies  and  new  ways

The past

of  governing  technologies  suggested  that  there

Twenty  years  ago,  at  the  start  of  the  preparatory

might  be  ways  of  changing  how  public  policy  gets

process for the World Summit on the Information So-

made  –  not  least  by  bringing  more  diversity  into

ciety (WSIS), the internet – a “network of networks”

decision-making  through  multistakeholder  partici-

–  and  internet  governance  were  still  abstract  and

pation.”7 It presented an opportunity for civil society

largely unknown concepts to many delegates. In re-

actors to be part of evolving a new, fairer, global gov-

sponse, at the end of the first phase of the WSIS, the

ernance model at a time when there were wider calls

UN Secretary-General mandated a multistakeholder

in the UN for more inclusive and accountable global

Working  Group  on  Internet  Governance  (WGIG)3  to

governance.8  In  its  statement  at  the  conclusion  of

investigate, define and make proposals on the gov-

the  WSIS  process,  civil  society  expressed  support

ernance of the internet to inform negotiations at the

for  the  idea  of  the  IGF,  committed  to  participate  in

second and final phase of the WSIS in Tunis in 2005.

it, but reiterated its view that “the forum should be

The  WGIG’s  working  definition  for  internet  govern-

more  than  a  place  for  dialogue”  and  “should  also

ance was formally adopted in Tunis:

provide  expert  analysis,  trend  monitoring,  and  ca-

pacity building, including in close collaboration with

Internet governance is the development and ap-

external partners in the research community.”9

plication by governments, the private sector and

Civil society organisations have since participat-

civil society, in their respective roles, of shared

ed actively in the IGF and in other post-WSIS global,

principles, norms, rules, decision-making proce-

regional  and  national  policy  processes.10  They  col-

dures, and programmes that shape the evolution

laborated  with  institutions  from  other  stakeholder

and use of the Internet.4

groups  to  produce  multiple  internet  governance

This definition, along with the affirmation in the Tu-

frameworks,  norms,  principles  and  guidelines.

nis  Agenda  (the  final  WSIS  output  document)  that

Examples  include  the  Brazilian  Principles  for  the

“the management of the Internet encompasses both

Governance and Use of the Internet,11 the Necessary

technical and public policy issues and should involve

all stakeholders and relevant intergovernmental and

7  Souter, D. (2022, 21 June). Inside the Digital Society: Does internet

international  organizations,”5  and  the  formation  of

governance require a reboot?  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/blog/

the Internet Governance Forum (IGF),6 promised a dy-

inside-digital-society-does-internet-governance-require-reboot

8  For example, at the UN World Summit on Sustainable Development

namic and inclusive future for internet governance.

(Johannesburg, August 2002), the failure of global financial, trade

and environmental governance to effectively manage the uneven

effects of globalisation featured prominently. The outcome document

emphasised the need for all levels of policy formulation and decision

1  Anriette Esterhuysen is an APC associate and a senior advisor on

making to be inclusive of developing country voices and also called for

internet governance.

strengthened partnerships with civil society. Johannesburg Declaration

2  Wim Degezelle is an internet policy analyst and consultant.

on Sustainable Development, 2002, paragraph 26. https://www.

3  Working Group on Internet Governance. (2005).  The Working Group

un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POI_PD.htm

on Internet Governance: Background Report.  https://www.itu.int/

9  Various. (2005).  “Much more could have been achieved”: Civil

net/wsis/wgig/docs/wgig-background-report.pdf

Society Statement on the World Summit on the Information Society.

4  Tunis Agenda, paragraph 34. https://www.itu.int/net/wsis/docs2/

https://waccglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Much-more-

tunis/off/6rev1.html

could-have-been-achieved.pdf

5  Ibid., paragraph 35.

10  For example, the regional WSIS action plans in Africa and Latin

6  The Tunis Agenda, in article 72, asked the UN Secretary General to

America and the Caribbean.

convene a forum for multistakeholder dialogue, called the Internet

11  Developed by the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee in 2009.

Governance Forum. https://www.intgovforum.org

https://www.cgi.br/principles

60  /  Global Information Society Watch

and  Proportionate  Principles  on  the  Application  of

the  NETmundial  process  and  outcome  documents,

Human  Rights  to  Communications  Surveillance,12

which  they  felt  favoured  the  “core  interests  of  the

the Charter of Human Rights and Principles for the

most resourceful parties, which, at the global level,

Internet,13 the African Declaration on Internet Rights

are often the US and big business.”21 However, the

and  Freedoms,14  the  Manila  Principles  on  Interme-

vast majority accepted the outcome and celebrated

diary  Liability15  and  the  Feminist  Principles  of  the

its  strong  commitment  to  the  internet  as  a  global

Internet.16 The Code of Good Practice on Information,

public resource that should be managed accordingly,

Participation  and  Transparency  in  Internet  Govern-

and to the emphasis given to openness, transparen-

ance17  was  developed  by  APC  with  the  Council  of

cy, inclusion and human rights.

Europe  and  the  United  Nations  Economic  Commis-

To  date,  NETmundial  remains  the  largest  and

sion for Europe, and civil society contributed to the

most  inclusive  multistakeholder  process  for  distill-

milestone Human Rights Council resolution of 2012

ing principles for internet governance. Its innovative

that affirmed that human rights that apply in the “of-

process enabled collective and transparent drafting,

fline world” also apply online.18

with contributions from 1,480 stakeholders from 97

Civil society invested time and resources in the

countries collected via an online platform, followed

IGF’s Multistakeholder Advisory Group (MAG), in IGF

by face-to-face negotiation and consensus building.

intersessional  work  (Dynamic  Coalitions  and  Best

Sadly,  and  despite  receiving  widespread  en-

Practice Forums) and, in 2011 at the Nairobi IGF, initi-

dorsement,  the  NETmundial  principles  were

ated the “day zero” tradition of having linked events

never systematically promoted, “socialised” and le-

on the day before the official IGF programme. Sev-

gitimated by the stakeholders that negotiated them.

eral of the national, regional and youth IGFs (NRIs)

Nor  did  they  move  from  the  multistakeholder  into

that emerged from 2008 onwards were initiated by

the  multilateral  space  –  in  fact,  some  UN  member

civil society groups and contributed to them building

states  actively  opposed  formal  recognition  of  the

closer relationships with national governments and

NETmundial principles in UN forums.22 The work of

regional intergovernmental institutions.

consolidating principles for governing the internet –

This  WSIS-  and  IGF-inspired  multistakeholder

once a core theme at the IGF – came to a halt.

public policy engagement “bubble” reached a peak

NETmundial did have impact. The IANA transition,

in  2014  with  the  NETmundial,19  a  response  to  the

one  of  the  most  controversial  internet  governance

shock of the Snowden revelations and the controver-

processes of the post-WSIS era, benefited from both

sy around the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority

the  NETmundial  process  –  which  outlined  a  road-

(IANA)  transition.  It  was  hosted  and  organised  by

map for the transition – and the IGF, as a platform for

the then left-leaning government of Brazil with the

providing  broader,  and  global  South,  engagement.

technical community, in close collaboration with civil

NETmundial  also  proves  that  collective  multistake-

society, governments and the academic and business

holder drafting of text is possible, even if not easy.

sectors. The resulting NETmundial Multistakeholder

But  would  the  NETmundial  principles,  if  they

Statement20 was drafted collaboratively, with all in-

had  been  globally  socialised  and  adopted  by  both

terest groups having to compromise to some extent.

multilateral  and  multistakeholder  decision-making

Several civil society actors were not fully happy with

forums, have enabled a more coherent public inter-

est and human rights-centred approach to internet

governance? Would this have helped harmonise the

12  Developed by the Electronic Frontier Foundation and a coalition of

spate  of  national-level  internet-related  regulation

NGOs in 2013-2014. https://necessaryandproportionate.org/principles

that has emerged in the last few years, and as such,

13  Developed by the IGF Internet Rights and Principles Dynamic

Coalition in 2011. https://internetrightsandprinciples.org/charter

safeguarded the internet as a global public resource

14  Drafted in 2014 as a Pan-African initiative to promote human rights

from  fragmentation  produced  by  the  actions  of  in-

standards and principles of openness in internet policy formulation and

ternet companies and national governments? Would

implementation on the continent. https://africaninternetrights.org

15  Developed through an open, collaborative process conducted by a

current  efforts  to  regulate  corporate  behaviour  on

broad coalition of civil society groups and experts from around the

the  internet  have  been  more  global  and  coopera-

world in 2015. https://manilaprinciples.org/index.html

tive,  as  opposed  to  fragmented  along  geopolitical,

16  Originally drafted in 2014 at the first Imagine a Feminist Internet in

Malaysia, organised by APC. https://feministinternet.org

regional or national lines? Perhaps or perhaps not;

17  https://www.apc.org/en/projects/

code-good-practice-information-participation-and-t

18  “The promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on

the Internet”, A/HRC/RES/20/8, resolution adopted by the UN

21  Just Net Coalition. (2014, 5 May). The JNC Response to the NETmundial

Human Rights Council on 16 July 2012. https://digitallibrary.un.org/

Outcome Document.  ALAI. https://www.alai.info/85299-2

record/731540?ln=en

22  Evident in, for example, discussions at the UN Commission on Science

19  https://netmundial.br

and Technology for Development (CSTD) on WSIS follow-up and the

20  https://netmundial.br/netmundial-multistakeholder-statement

resulting Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) resolution in 2015.

Thematic reports / 61

but having some soft law instruments that expanded

is new is that they have to give serious attention to

on the WSIS principles would definitely have provid-

internet-related aspects of their areas of work. This

ed – at least in the context of UN processes – a more

constitutes a challenge in its own right, particularly

focused and potentially influential global approach

for  civil  society  organisations  who  lack  the  human

to discussing solutions to emerging internet-related

and financial resources required to follow all these

policy and regulation challenges.

processes effectively.

The present

COVID-19

Today, internet-related issues are priorities on many

The early 2020s will always be associated with the

policy agendas. Having grown from 1.1 billion users

COVID-19  pandemic,  a  global  crisis  which  affect-

in 2005 to more than four billion users today,23 the

ed  almost  everyone  everywhere,  in  developed  and

internet  is  at  the  centre  of  a  process  of  digitalisa-

developing  countries.  The  severity  of  the  pandem-

tion  that  is  transforming  the  workplace,  social  and

ic’s  impact  depended  on  multiple  factors,  but  four

political  processes,  business  and  trade,  as  well  as

of  these  are  worth  noting,  because  they  contain

people’s personal lives, a transformation accelerat-

lessons  learned  that  are  also  relevant  to  internet

ed by COVID-19.

governance.  They  are  equitable  and  sustainable

However, several of the challenges that were on

development; publicness (as in resilient public infra-

the  table  during  the  WSIS  remain  unresolved.  For

structure  and  services);  coordinated  collaboration;

example,  access  to  the  internet  remains  unequal,

and trust and human rights.

between  and  within  countries  and  regions.  The

First,  equitable  and  sustainable  development.

availability  and  affordability  of  infrastructure  and

As  the  World  Health  Organization  (WHO)  recently

devices,  local  content  in  local  languages,  and  the

put it:

human capacity needed to reap the benefits of using

The pandemic has laid bare the social fractures

the internet are “old challenges”. On the other end

in our societies and it is no longer possible to ig-

of the spectrum, many new challenges have emerged

nore the fact that many people are struggling to

and are emerging from hyper connectivity and the re-

live a decent and dignified life and are unable to

sulting dependence on internet-based systems and

meet essential needs for safe and secure shelter,

services. With new opportunities come new threats

food, fuel and income. The coexistence of materi-

and risks. Datafication, surveillance-based business

al deprivation and discrimination by gender, race

models, artificial intelligence, machine learning and

and religion have emerged in the risks of infec-

automated  decision  making,  cybercrime,  mis-  and

tion, excess loss of life, and growing poverty and

disinformation and harmful content create a whole

poor health faced by ethnic minorities, women,

new range of challenges and policy questions.

informal workers, and the poor and vulnerable.25

Internet  governance  is  no  longer  a  stand-alone

discipline  but  has  become  part  of  broader  “digital

Digital equity proved to be vital for accessing infor-

governance” and “digital transformation”. The range

mation, education and culture, for staying in touch

of  internet-related  policy  and  regulation  issues

with friends and family, and for people to be able to

continues  to  expand,  cross  borders,  and  intersect

continue working to earn a living. Access to the in-

with other spheres. Linked to this is a proliferation

ternet and the ability to use it in a meaningful way26

of venues. Some are new, such as the Ad Hoc Com-

softened the social, psychological and economic im-

mittee  to  Elaborate  a  Comprehensive  International

pact  of  lockdowns  and  quarantine,  and  the  impact

Convention  on  Countering  the  Use  of  Information

of  not having access became starkly visible, which

and Communications Technologies for Criminal Pur-

highlighted the need for digital inclusion.

poses,24  but  many  pre-date  internet  governance,

But  achieving  equitable  and  sustainable  dig-

for  example,  national  legislatures,  telecoms  reg-

ital  development  is  not  easy.  As  the  extent  and

ulatory  bodies,  trade  organisations,  competition

sophistication  of  internet-based  transactions  and

commissions  and  human  rights  institutions.  What

applications  increase,  those  without  the  needed

devices,  bandwidth  and  skills  tend  to  fall  even

further behind, and the digital inequality actually

23  According to data from the International Telecommunication Union

(ITU), 50% of the world population (around four billion people) used

the internet at the end of 2019. Other sources, such as Internet World

25  WHO. (2022, 7 July). WHO encourages stakeholders to embed

Stats, put the mid-2021 figure at well over 4.5 billion. ITU. (2020).

health equity in COVID-19 recovery plans. https://www.who.int/

Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2020. https://www.

europe/news/item/07-07-2022-who-encourages-stakeholders-to-

itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/FactsFigures2020.pdf

embed-health-equity-in-covid-19-recovery-plans

24  https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/cybercrime/ad_hoc_committee/

26  Which in turn relates to issues such as skills, affordability, quality of

home

broadband internet connectivity, etc.

62  /  Global Information Society Watch

increases.  In  addition,  increased  digitalisation,

insufficient resources (and capability) of the WHO

once  seen  as  a  more  sustainable  alternative  to

were  exacerbated  by  the  United  States’  with-

industrialisation, has become a contributor to cli-

drawal  of  support  (since  reversed  by  President

mate  change,  pollution  and  habitat  destruction

Biden)  and  former  President  Trump’s  consistent

through  massive  energy  use,  electronic  waste

public  attacks  on  the  institution  and  its  leader-

and  its  dependency  on  rare  minerals,  the  mining

ship.28  Even  the  expansive  regulatory  machinery

of which has fuelled conflict and damage to sen-

of  the  European  Union  could  not  produce  clear

sitive ecosystems (e.g. the sea bed). Internet and

and coordinated responses on vaccine approvals,

digital governance, policy and regulation need to

lockdowns  or  travel  restrictions.29  With  respect

consider  the  impact  of  innovation  and  growth  on

to vaccine development, the complexity resulting

people, communities, biodiversity and the natural

from so much COVID-19-related research and de-

environment.

velopment being led by the private sector had not

Second, and linked to equitable and sustainable

been anticipated. When it was most needed, there

development,  is  “publicness”  and  resilient  public

was simply not enough active coordination or col-

services  and  infrastructure.  Under-investment  in

laboration between public and private health and

resilient  public  health  systems27  left  national  and

pharmaceutical  authorities  and  regulators.  Nei-

global  health  authorities  struggling  to  respond

ther government nor business seemed to engage

effectively to the crisis. Once vaccines became avail-

the  media  and  civil  society  sufficiently,  and  they

able,  the  ability  of  health  services  to  manage  the

rarely  presented  common  positions. This  created

vaccination  supply  chain,  from  procuring  vaccines,

a climate of uncertainty, prone to mis- and disin-

to  communicating  with  the  public,  to  storing,  de-

formation and an overall trust deficit, which made

livering  and  administering  vaccinations,  impacted

responding to the pandemic more difficult.

on  economic  recovery  and  a  return  to  normal  life.

Effective  internet  governance  also  relies  on

Dependency  on  the  internet  during  the  pandemic

cross-border multistakeholder and multilateral col-

revealed under-investment in internet infrastructure

laboration.  This  too  lacks  a  clear  and  coordinated

and  services.  Many  people  did  not  have  reliable

commitment  by  both  public  and  private  sector  ac-

broadband  access,  particularly  in  rural  areas.  De-

tors  to  protecting  and  governing  the  internet  as  a

spite being a priority since the WSIS, enabling policy

global  commons  or  public  good.  Increasingly,  peo-

and regulation to expedite universal access are still

ple’s use of the internet – and access to news and

not in place in many parts of the world. While some

information – takes place through privately owned,

countries approach access to the internet as essen-

commercial  platforms.  As  pandemic-related  panic

tial, and even as a right, others have introduced new

set in, mis- and disinformation were spread on social

barriers,  for  example,  through  taxation  of  social

media.30 The response from platforms was delayed

media  and  voice  over  IP  (VoIP)  service  or  through

at  best,  and  often  inadequate.  From  states  it  was

internet shutdowns.

often  rushed  and  overly  aggressive.  Several  used

Much  internet  infrastructure  is  built  and  main-

the pandemic to justify legislation that criminalised

tained  by  the  private  sector  and  the  technical

COVID mis- and disinformation online, using vague

community,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  internet

definitions that endangered freedom of expression,

infrastructure, and a primary reason for its govern-

particularly people’s freedom to challenge state re-

ance  being  multistakeholder.  However,  this  does

sponses to the crisis.31

not,  and  should  not,  negate  the  need  for  such  in-

frastructure to be incentivised and regulated in the

public interest and for the internet to be understood

and protected as a commons or public good.

28  KFF. (2022, 19 May). The U.S. Government and the World Health

Third,  coordinated  collaboration.  Around

Organization. https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/fact-sheet/

the  world,  the  effort  to  address  the  pandemic

the-u-s-government-and-the-world-health-organization

and  prevent  it  from  getting  worse  was  marred

29  Springall, J. (2022, 5 March). How will we ever overcome the

confusion and complexity of COVID-19 travel?  Euronews. https://

by  insufficient  international  and  multistakehold-

www.euronews.com/travel/2022/03/05/how-will-we-ever-

er  coordination  and  collaboration.  The  already

overcome-the-confusion-and-complexity-of-covid-19-travel

30  https://www.poynter.org/ifcn-covid-19-misinformation

31  Fish Hodgson, T., Farise, K., & Mavedzenge, J. (2020, 5 April).

Southern Africa has cracked down on fake news, but may have

gone too far.  Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/analysis/2020-

27  In general, but with multiple issues that relate to internet

04-05-southern-africa-has-cracked-down-on-fake-news-but-

governance challenges, such as connectivity to exchange data

may-have-gone-too-far; Dushyant, & Manzar, O. (Eds.) (2020).

and information between public health institutions, collect data,

The New Normal: How to Survive a New World Order. Digital

adequately inform and sensitise the general public, manage

Empowerment Foundation. https://www.defindia.org/wp-content/

vaccination campaigns, etc.

uploads/2021/02/The-New-Normal-Full-Book-by-DEF.pdf

Thematic reports / 63

This  brings  us  to  the  fourth  factor,  trust  and

in Ukraine, and described recently by Alex Klimburg

human  rights.  Many  governments  underesti-

and others as two alternate futures:

mated  the  importance  of  building  trust  through

In the best case, the world can hope for a bright,

strengthening  their  own  public  information  and

stable digital future, with different parts of cyber-

communication systems. Trust was further under-

space working in tandem and available globally,

mined by rushed COVID contact-tracing solutions,

and where international cooperation makes it in-

which in some cases were introduced without data

creasingly safe and secure. The alternate vision

protection  frameworks  being  in  place  and  were

is bleaker: a “splinternet” of competing internets

rolled out in a manner that could be described as

and  walled  gardens,  where  cybercrime  is  rife,

“surveillance  by  stealth”. What  data  was  collect-

and the calamitous threat of civilization-crashing

ed,  where  and  how  long  it  was  stored,  and  how

cyberwar is ever-present.34

it was processed and used were often unclear, in-

cluding who had access to the data or with whom

The problem with binary views of the future of the

data and results were shared.32

internet is two-fold. First, they overlook the diverse

The  trust  deficit  during  the  pandemic  existed

reality  that  characterises  how  people  today  (can)

at  multiple  levels,  between  countries,  between

use and experience the internet. The idealised “free

citizens  and  states,  between  private  and  public

and  open  internet”  has  never  existed  for  people

health  care  entities,  and  between  consumers  and

who  have  no  access  or  intermittent,  poor  quality

corporations. Trust is intrinsically linked to human

access,  for  people  who  have  to  spend  more  than

rights.  One  of  the  most  profound  characteristics

20% of their monthly household income for broad-

of  the  human  rights  framework  that  has  evolved

band, or who live in countries where the government

over  the  last  75  years  is  that  it  puts  individuals

shuts down the internet unilaterally. Second, binary

at  its  centre,  not  citizens.  As  duty  bearers  for  up-

rhetoric  to  describe  the  future  of  the  internet,  par-

holding  and  promoting  human  rights,  all  states

ticularly when repeatedly expressed by government

have the responsibility to do so for all of humanity,

representatives  in  international  forums,  could  be-

not just for their citizens. One can argue that one

come  self-fulfilling  prophecies  contributing  to  and

of the weaknesses in the global response to COV-

accelerating the very polarisation they predict. Jason

ID-19 was that it followed national, citizen-oriented

Pielemeier and Chris Riley point this out in their cri-

lines, rather than being rooted in international col-

tique of a recent report by the US Council on Foreign

laboration  aimed  at  protecting  and  supporting

Relations35 that declared the era of the global inter-

humanity  at  large.  Internet  governance  too  needs

net as being over:

to be grounded in international human rights laws

and standards as a means of avoiding harms, exclu-

The  internet  is  a  network  of  networks,  and

sion and fragmentation.

despite  the  advanced  information  controls  im-

posed in some jurisdictions, its technical design

Internet governance of the future

– including the critical Internet Protocol and Bor-

der Gateway Protocol – [is] designed to maintain

The future of internet governance is often presented

interconnection above all else. Separating coun-

in binary terms,33 a trend reinforced by the conflict

tries  into  friends  and  enemies  also,  ironically,

buttresses  the  long-standing  goals  of  China,

Russia, Iran, and other authoritarian regimes to

32  The WHO published an excellent set of guidelines on contact

tracing in February 2021. These guidelines emphasise the human

center internet governance in “cyber sovereign-

component of contact tracing, warn of risks to individual privacy and

ty” rather than internationally protected human

security, and state very clearly that it is not necessarily the most

appropriate response: “Contact tracing efforts need to be balanced

rights.36

against other resource requirements, and the impact of contact

tracing should be assessed relative to other health interventions.

Planning for contact tracing includes ensuring that the costs of

setting up and maintaining an effective system are secured and that

the social and economic consequences of quarantine are addressed

34  Klimburg, A., Perucica, N., & Dobrygowski, D. (2022, 24 May).

for affected individuals.” WHO. (2021, 1 February). Contact tracing

How to safeguard the internet after the war in Ukraine.  World

in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance. https://apps.who.int/

Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/

iris/bitstream/handle/10665/339128/WHO-2019-nCoV-Contact_

safeguarding-the-internet-post-ukraine

Tracing-2021.1-eng.pdf

35  Segal, A., Goldstein, G. M., & Schmemann, A. (2022).  Confronting

33  At the 2018 IGF held in Paris, at UNESCO, President Macron

Reality in Cyberspace: Foreign Policy for a Fragmented Internet.

posited the idea of the “internet of California”, self-regulated

Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/report/

by companies against the “internet of China”, controlled by

confronting-reality-in-cyberspace/download/pdf/2022-07/CFR_

government. He proposed a middle way where governments

TFR80_Cyberspace_Full_SinglePages_06212022_Final.pdf

work with other stakeholders to regulate the internet “properly”.

36  Pielemeier, J., & Riley, C. (2022, 1 September). In Defense of the

See: https://www.intgovforum.org/multilingual/content/

Global, Open Internet.  Lawfare. https://www.lawfareblog.com/

igf-2018-speech-by-french-president-emmanuel-macron

defense-global-open-internet-0

64  /  Global Information Society Watch

They continue:

civil  society  should  take  stock,  analyse  and  priori-

tise, and do so collaboratively – within civil society,

In a moment of historic expansion of internet con-

but also with other sectors/stakeholder groups.

nectivity,  most  governments  around  the  world

Take  stock  and  prioritise.  Assessing  progress,

still haven’t firmly established their position on

success and setbacks of the last 20 years is a good

the spectrum between an authoritarian and free-

basis for civil society from the global South and North

dom-centric approach to internet governance. If

to  collaborate  and  plan  future  action.  The  Global

the United States, in particular, portrays the fu-

Digital  Compact,  the  Summit  of  the  Future,  cyber-

ture  of  the  internet  as  inevitably  isolationist,  it

security processes and WSIS+20 are opportunities.

is as likely to push governments  toward authori-

The  diversity  within  civil  society  might  not  allow

tarian models as it is to incentivize governments

achieving complete consensus about everything, but

away from them.37

that should not matter. Gathering together to assess

Is there a way forward for internet governance that

the  past,  share  perspectives  and  look  at  the  main

avoids binary thinking and reaffirms the internet as

developments  in  different  policy  spaces  that  affect

an interconnected, interoperable network and, ulti-

internet governance will provide building blocks for

mately, a global public resource? Is there a role for

this holistic view and approach. There are bound to

the IGF, which will be convening for the 17th time this

be  areas  of  commonality  that  can  underpin  some

year?

form of collective input into formal policy processes.

The  IGF  is  being  questioned  for  not  effectively

Invest  in,  and  demand,  inclusive  multilater-

producing  outcomes  that  feed  into  policy  process-

al  and  multistakeholder  governance  processes.

es.  This  critique,  while  not  entirely  without  merit,

In  2003  civil  society  proposed  that  “[p]rocedurally,

has unfortunately resulted in undervaluing the IGF’s

decision-making processes must be based on such

long-term  impact  as  a  platform  for  networking,

values as inclusive participation, transparency, and

learning, and open dialogue and debate. The reality

democratic  accountability.”38  These  words  are  still

is that in a world where many governments have nev-

relevant  today  across  the  board  of  multilateral,

er given full support to the idea of multistakeholder

multistakeholder, and national or industry-level inter-

global governance, and many more have inconsist-

net-related policy and regulatory processes. Division

ent human rights records, the IGF succeeded as an

within civil society on whether it should support the

inclusive and open forum covering all aspects of in-

multistakeholder  approach  or  not  has  been  unpro-

ternet governance, including human rights and the

ductive. What matters is how transparent, inclusive,

multistakeholder approach.

participative and accountable any policy process is.

Critiques  of  the  IGF,  particularly  by  states,  can

Lack  of  transparency  and  accountability  can  hide

also be seen as a reflection of a nascent shift away

and  enable  capture  by  vested  corporate  or  nation-

from  mainstreamed  and  substantive  commitments

al  interests.  The  multistakeholder  approach  is  not

to  establishing  global,  cooperative,  inclusive,  mul-

a  substitute  for  effective  multilateral  governance.

tistakeholder  internet  governance.  Governments

We  need  both  multistakeholder  and  multilateral

that  were  foremost  among  those  that  championed

processes, and both need to be more effective and

inclusive,  multistakeholder,  human  rights-oriented

inclusive.  Sadly,  the  recently  published  draft  mo-

internet  governance  now  seem  to  advance  an  “us

dalities  for  the  upcoming  Summit  of  the  Future,39

against  them”  approach  in  relation  to  “non-like-

a  multilateral  process  that  claims  it  will  facilitate

minded”  states,  rather  than  systematically  joining

multi stakeholder  input,  suggests  that  opportuni-

forces with civil society and other non-state actors

ty  for  non-state  actor  engagement  will  be  limited

to seek common ground and strive for cooperation.

and constrained. Civil society’s only way of working

around  that  is  to  work  collaboratively,  particularly

Conclusions and call to action

during the preparation for the Summit.

There  are  no  shortcuts  to  achieving  the  inclusive,

people-centred,  human  rights-oriented  information

society  that  civil  society  organisations  have  envis-

aged since the WSIS. Realising this vision requires

38  WSIS Civil Society Plenary. (2003).  “Shaping Information Societies

a  holistic  approach  that  considers  the  factors

for Human Needs”: Civil Society Declaration to the World Summit

on the Information Society. https://www.itu.int/net/wsis/docs/

discussed  above:  equitable  and  sustainable  devel-

geneva/civil-society-declaration.pdf

opment, the publicness of the internet, coordinated

39  United Nations General Assembly. (2022, 7 September). Draft

collaboration, and trust and human rights. To do so,

resolution submitted by the President of the General Assembly:

Modalities for the Summit of the Future. A/76/L.87. https://

daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?OpenAgent&DS=A/76/

L.87&Lang=E 2022. https://daccess-ods.un.org/

37  Ibid.

tmp/2137181.31184578.html

Thematic reports / 65

Challenge fragmentation of the internet  and of

governments are familiar with this approach through

internet  governance.   Internet-related  regulation  is

the EU Consensus on Development agreement43 and

here to stay, whether it is intended to reduce online

the UN Common Understanding of the HRBA.44 This

harm, regulate corporate behaviour, hold platforms

means  that  civil  society  has  a  common  language

accountable for disseminating false information, or

to draw on when using the HRBA in internet policy

combat  cybercrime.  Walled  gardens,  national  fire-

processes. Its core elements are captured by the ac-

walls, censorship, surveillance, shutdowns and the

ronym PLANET: participation; links to human rights

exploitation of personal data are all part of today’s

obligations;  accountability;  non-discrimination;

internet and go against the ideal of one unfragment-

empowerment and capacity development; and trans-

ed  internet.  At  the  same  time,  faith  in  the  value  of

parency. Sida recently published two helpful guides

open  and  inclusive  dialogue,  and  in  the  IGF  as  a

to using this approach in digitalisation and internet

platform to facilitate such a dialogue, seems to be

policy and development.45

in decline, fuelled by “new cold war” discourse. But

Find and mind the gap.  Assessing past work is

this does not need to be the case. The open internet’s

also  a  way  of  identifying  gaps.  For  example,  early

core  protocols  continue  to  enable  interoperability

civil society documents, and the NETmundial state-

and  interconnection  to  all  those  who  have  access

ment, refer to the internet as a public resource, or a

to it. Civil society can counter fragmentation of the

public good. The Global Commission on the Stability

internet  and  of  internet  governance  by  advocating

of Cyberspace proposed the norm to protect the pub-

for  and  participating  in  collaborative  coordination,

lic core of the internet.46 The UN Secretary-General

and  policy  and  regulation  that  harmonise  across

highlights the need for digital public goods in his  Our

borders, building on common existing international

Common Agenda report.47 But no one has explored

norms and principles (spanning the fields of human

systematically  what  the  normative  implications  of

rights,  social  justice,  peace  and  sustainable  devel-

approaching the internet itself as a commons would

opment) as a foundation.

be  for  policy  and  regulation.  Civil  society  should

Reuse, mix and remix.  When it comes to formu-

consider whether there are pivotal shifts needed to

lating positions, principles and norms, there is a vast

redirect the trajectory of internet governance away

body of work already done by civil society itself, as

from  becoming  contested  terrain  between  states

well as by other stakeholder groups, such as the UN

and corporations, and help it move towards protect-

First  Committee’s  Group  of  Governmental  Experts’

ing the internet as a global public good or commons,

norms on responsible state behaviour in cyberspace.

to  be  governed  in  the  public  interest  based  on  in-

Adapting to context changes and being agile is cru-

ternational  human  rights  norms.  In  this  context,

cial in the digital space, but it is not necessary to go

civil  society  could  consider  and  propose  possible

back to the drawing board empty handed. The state-

instruments,  for  example  a  UN-based  framework

ments  and  principles  cited  above,  along  with  tools

agreement  that  captures  the  WSIS  principles  in  a

such as UNESCO’s Internet Universality Indicators,40

way that can be used to hold states accountable for

are all valuable. So are ones not yet mentioned such

upholding them. Gaps can also be more specific, and

as the Just Net Coalition’s Delhi Declaration,41 or the

addressed as such – for example, norms for online

Communication  Rights  in  the  Information  Society

advertising and content moderation during elections

(CRIS) Campaign’s handbook on assessing commu-

to enhance trust and prevent manipulation and that

nication rights,42 more recent norms and guidelines

can be used to hold companies and political parties

focused  on  platform  governance  or  human-centric

accountable.

cybersecurity, or the human rights-based approach

(HRBA).  The  HRBA  is  not  just  about  human  rights

and building trust. It is an approach that builds on

43  https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.

the  norms  and  principles  outlined  in  the  Universal

eu/policies/european-development-policy/

Declaration  of  Human  Rights,  and  the  subsequent

european-consensus-development_en

44  UN Sustainable Development Group. (2003).  The

legally  binding  UN  treaties,  but  it  also  challenges

Human Rights Based Approach to Development

unequal power relations and social exclusion. Many

Cooperation: Towards a Common Understanding

Among UN Agencies. https://unsdg.un.org/resources/

human-rights-based-approach-development-coordination

45  Sida. (2022).  Human Rights Based Approach and Digitalisation.

40  https://www.unesco.org/en/communication-information/

https://cdn.sida.se/app/uploads/2022/05/03092839/10205933_

internet-governance/internet-universality-indicators

Sida_TN_HRBA_Digitalisation_webb.pdf; Sida. (2022).  HRBA 41  https://justnetcoalition.org/delhi-declaration

and a Free, Open and Secure Internet. https://cdn.sida.se/app/

42  CRIS Campaign. (2005).  Assessing Communication Rights: A

uploads/2022/05/03093124/10205933_Sida_TN_HRBA_Secure_

Handbook. https://archive.ccrvoices.org/cdn.agilitycms.com/

Internet_webb.pdf

centre-for-communication-rights/Images/Articles/pdf/cris-manual-

46  https://hcss.nl/gcsc-norms

en.pdf

47  https://www.un.org/en/common-agenda

66  /  Global Information Society Watch

Context matters. For civil society, an equitable,

Staying connected to the “wider” world means,

inclusive public and human rights-oriented internet

for  example,  being  connected  to  local  issues  and

is  not  an  isolated  goal.  As  civil  society  engages  in

contexts,  networking  with  communities  and  com-

internet governance of the future, it must stay aware

munity-based  organisations,  and  interacting  with

and engaged with working for social and economic

national,  regional  and  local  government.  It  means

justice,  gender  equality,  peace  and  environmental

working  collaboratively  but  also  being  construc-

sustainability  –  locally  and  globally.  David  Souter

tively  critical,  by  asking  questions  rather  than

recently pointed out:

making assumptions; by listening to people who are

affected  directly  by  issues  discussed  in  policy

Technology’s  development’s  not  independent

spaces; by building alternative solutions and working

of  what’s  happening  in  the  wider  world  around

in partnership; by caring for our planet and all lives;

it.  External  circumstances  –  individual  events,

and  by  carefully  evaluating  –  and  acting  on  –  the

changes in the way we live, trends in geopolitics

impact of digitalisation on the environment as well

– affect digital development just as much as digi-

as  how  digitalisation  can  help  to  mitigate  climate

tal development affects the wider world.48

change and manage its effects.

48  Souter, D. (2022, 20 July). Inside the Digital Society: What impact

has COVID had in practice?  APC. https://www.apc.org/en/blog/

inside-digital-society-what-impact-has-covid-had-practice

Thematic reports / 67

Country and regional reports

68  /  Global Information Society Watch

ARGENTINA

INTERNET RIGHTS IN A PANDEMIC: HOW CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS

ADVOCATED FOR RIGHTS AND BETTER POLICIES

Emergency  Assistance  for  Work  and  Production

Nodo TAU

María Florencia Roveri

Fund, and prohibited lay-offs, evictions and cuts in

https://tau.org.ar

public services.2

The  mandatory  isolation  period  was  prolonged

in  Argentina,  catalysing  the  need  to  be  online,  es-

Introduction

pecially  for  education  and  work.  This  motivated  a

The  beginning  of  the  pandemic  found  Argentina

series of policies and regulatory measures to meet

with a new, progressive government, committed to

the demands for access to technology and connec-

expanding  rights.  It  took  on  the  health  crisis  with

tivity. These measures highlighted actual conditions

pre-emptive measures aimed at protecting the pub-

of access in a context in which numerous aspects of

lic’s health, access to education and the economy.

daily life are dependent on having a telephone or a

Internet  access  was  also  addressed  in  several

computer and an internet connection.

policies  –  mainly  in  terms  of  connectivity,  but  also

These  are  some  percentages  that  show  the  in-

in relation to access to equipment – as was access

crease in internet access over the past two years:

to  public  information  and  freedom  of  expression,

•  In March 2020, fixed internet penetration was 63

including  the  problem  of  “fake  news”.  Digital  re-

per 100 people, with 108% in the City of Buenos

sources  aimed  at  controlling  the  circulation  of

Aires (meaning there are more connections than

people during lockdown and policies on diagnosing

homes). Nine provinces in the country were be-

COVID-19,  monitoring  and,  more  recently,  vaccina-

low 50% penetration.3

tion, were also put in place, some of which raised the

•  At  the  end  of  2020,  Argentina  reached  a  year-

challenge of processing personal information using

on-year variation of 8.9%. Over the previous five

the necessary privacy safeguards.

years this had been an average of 2.8% per year.

In  this  context,  organisations  and  actors  that,

from  different  perspectives,  address  access  to

•  The  increase  in  internet  consumption  was  50%

technologies  and  the  internet,  found  themselves

from  December  2019  to  December  2020.  From

confronted by a scenario where internet rights were

April 2020 to May 2020 alone it was 10%.

more  visible  than  ever  before. Their  challenge  was

•  In  the  first  half  of  2021,  only  14  out  of  100

to broaden and deepen a rights-based approach in

households had an internet connection through

policies related to information and communications

fibre-optic cables. In Uruguay this figure exceed-

technologies (ICTs).

ed 78%, in Brazil 56% and Chile 49%. However,

This report discusses the challenges of internet

in the last quarter of 2021, official statistics in-

access, freedom of expression and privacy that were

dicate  that  65%  of  households  have  access  to

foregrounded during the pandemic, and how civil so-

computers, with 40% using them.4

ciety organisations addressed the challenges.

These  numbers  evidence  a  context  of  growing  in-

Context

ternet  access,  with  large  variations  in  relation  to

geography, the type of devices with which the inter-

On  3  March  2020,  the  first  case  of  COVID-19  was

net is accessed, and the quality of connectivity. The

registered  in  Argentina.  Seventeen  days  later,  the

problems that threaten access are the lack of equip-

Argentine  government  decreed  mandatory  preven-

ment available in homes, the availability of services,

tive social isolation throughout the country.1 In the

field  of  health,  Argentina  played  an  active  role  in

developing  containment  policies,  strengthening

2  https://www.argentina.gob.ar/economia/

infrastructure,  and  setting  scientific  and  research

medidas-economicas-COVID19

3  Cámara Argentina de Internet. (2021, 10 June). CABASE Internet

policies in place. In the economic field, the govern-

Index. Segundo semestre de 2020 .  https://www.cabase.org.ar/el-

ment  launched  an  Emergency  Family  Income  and

32-de-los-hogares-de-argentina-hoy-no-cuenta-con-conectividad-

fija-a-internet

4  Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos. (2022).  Accesos a

1  Decreto 297/2020. https://www.boletinoficial.gob.ar/detalleAviso/

internet. Cuarto trimestre de 2021.  https://www.indec.gob.ar/

primera/227042/20200320

uploads/informesdeprensa/internet_03_22F82A81E9B8.pdf

ARGENTINA / 69

and  the  costs  of  a  monopolised  and  concentrated

Expanding rights and improving policies

market.

Access and the social appropriation

On 21 August 2020, the national government is-

sued Decree 690

of technologies

5 which refers to “ICT services and

access to telecommunications networks as essential

The  lack  of  access  to  connectivity,  most  evident  in

public services.” The telecoms regulator, ENACOM,

the  pandemic,  affects  geographically  and  socially

established  minimum  benefits  and  costs  for  each

marginalised communities in particular. To address

service and a prohibition on rates increases, among

these  inequalities,  ENACOM  developed  two  public

other  policies.  However,  in  June  2021,  the  courts

policies:

repealed the decree at the request of the econom-

•  The “Connectivity Programme for Popular Neigh-

ic  groups  that  monopolise  the  internet,  telephony

bourhoods”12  was  created  in  September  2020

and TV markets, who argued that these regulations

with the aim of promoting access to networks for

would produce “irreparable damage to the economy

the inhabitants of settlements registered in the

of the companies.”6

National  Registry  of  Popular  Neighbourhoods

In  the  educational  field,  several  policies  ad-

in the Process of Urban Integration (RENABAP).

dressed  access.  The  government  responded  to  the

Since  2017,  RENABAP  has  been  used  to  inform

request for educational content from ministerial por-

public  policies,  and  now  connectivity  had  been

tals under zero-rating policies. At the same time, the

added to its focus areas.

Ministry of Education developed a programme called

•  The  “Roberto  Arias  Programme”,13  launched  in

“Seguimos  Educando”  (“We  Continue  Educating”)7

June 2021, was aimed at meeting the connectivity

with content for television, radio, and digital and pa-

needs of rural and Indigenous communities, and

per booklets, which were distributed throughout the

promoted self-management through community

country. This programme was nevertheless criticised

networks.  The  programme  was  named  in  hom-

for being inaccessible to the most excluded sectors.

age to an icon of community communication.

In  popular8  territories  there  were  social  initiatives

to  support  education,  mediated  by  ICTs,  such  as

ENACOM  enabled  “non-refundable  contributions”

broadcasting  lessons  on  community  radio  or  using

(or  funding)  for  these  programmes,  using  resourc-

community networks.9

es  from  the  Universal  Service  Trust  Fund,  which

In relation to access to devices, with the help of

financed connectivity projects, if approved, in their

organisations, schools promoted the repair of equip-

entirety.  Before  that,  ENACOM  framed  communi-

ment  used  in  Conectar  Igualdad,  a  programme  for

ty  networks  as  “those  composed  of  infrastructure

distributing  netbooks  to  schools  that  had  ended.10

managed by their own users or by non-profit entities

In 2021, the government also launched a new equip-

in populations of no more than 5,000 inhabitants”.14

ment  distribution  programme  called  Juana  Manso .

These programmes expand the framework that regu-

However organisations criticised the involvement of

lates community networks in the country.

Microsoft in the new programme, given that Conec-

Both  policies  are  recognised  as  being  created

tar  Igualdad  had  been  explicitly  committed  to  free

through  dialogue  between  ENACOM,  universities

software.11

and civil society organisations that had already been

providing access to marginalised communities.

The community networks movement in Argentina

5  Decreto 690/2020. http://servicios.infoleg.gob.ar/infolegInternet/

anexos/340000-344999/341372/norma.htm

has developed tools and methodologies for expand-

6  Moreno, A. (2021, 14 August). Argentina en disputa por servicios

ing community networks, such as the production of

esenciales.  Radio Gráfica. https://radiografica.org.ar/2021/08/14/

the LibreRouter15 and the development of communi-

argentina-en-disputa-por-servicios-esenciales-2

7  https://www.educ.ar/recursos/151358/

ty training methodologies – efforts that have made

serie-seguimos-educando-cuadernos-para-estudiantes

some community networks in the country worldwide

8  The word “popular” as used in this report refers to communities

pioneers. The organisation AlterMundi is a good ex-

that lack basic services but also have a certain level of organisation.

ample.  It  promoted  the  Roberto  Arias  Programme,

They could also be referred to as “precarious” or “poor”

communities, but “popular” connotes a level of organisation, and a

supporting  organisations  and  sharing  community

local culture.

9  Ciarniello, M. C. (2020, 12 May). Educación popular para el cambio

social.  EnREDando. https://www.enredando.org.ar/2020/05/12/

un-medio-esencial

12  https://www.enacom.gob.ar/

10  Stoianovich, M. (2021, 10 April). Recuperar y reparar igualdad.

programa-barrios-populares_p4615#contenedorSite

EnREDando.  https://www.enredando.org.ar/2021/04/10/

13  https://www.enacom.gob.ar/

recuperar-y-reparar-igualdad

redes-comunitarias-roberto-arias_p5049

11  García Alfaro, J. (2022, 22 January). La mano invisible de Microsoft.

14  Resolución 4958/2018. http://servicios.infoleg.gob.ar/infolegInter-

Redacción Rosario. https://redaccionrosario.com/2022/01/22/

net/anexos/310000-314999/313590/norma.htm

la-mano-invisible-de-microsoft

15  https://librerouter.org

70  /  Global Information Society Watch

network experiences during the pandemic.16 A mem-

in infrastructure that are required, hence the im-

ber of AlterMundi, Jessica Giudice, pointed out that

portance of having public financing programmes.

during  the  pandemic,  “people  continued  to  have  a

Both  2020  and  2021  saw  the  growth  of  Atalaya’s

strong need for connectivity, and because of the fact

community  network  in  Buenos  Aires.  According  to

that the state took too long to provide efficient and

Manuela:

long-lasting  options,  the  Popular  Neighbourhoods

and Roberto Arias Programmes were born.”

The urgency was that families needed to count

Other  organisations  develop  initiatives  in  this

on  the  service.  With  a  contribution  from  the

field,  like  the  Popular  Communication  Roundtable

Ministry of Productive Development, the organ-

of  Salta  and  Jujuy,  in  the  north  of  the  country,  and

isation was able to scale up the network to 650

an  organisation  called  Atalaya,  which  worked  in

homes.  The  discussion  regarding  the  internet

precarious  neighbourhoods,  known  as  “villas”,  in

as an essential service also revalued our expe-

Buenos Aires, in the areas of education and the so-

riences  in  developing  community  connectivity.

cial appropriation of the technologies, and also ran a

Clearly,  the  judgment  against  the  decree  [pre-

community network in Villa 20. Another initiative that

venting  an  increase  in  internet  service  fees]

should be highlighted in this context is the Diploma

shows that the correlation of forces continues to

in  Social  Appropriation  of  Technologies  offered  by

be unfavourable.

the  Faculty  of  Social  Sciences  of  the  National  Uni-

versity of Buenos Aires with the participation of the

Regarding  the  ENACOM  programmes,  Manuela

Ministry of Social Development. Although the diplo-

points out that “although there are elements of the

ma was designed before the pandemic, it had its first

programmes that should be modified, they meant a

cohort of students in 2021.

great advance for the extension of community net-

The  diploma  includes  a  module  dedicated  to

works,” which she defines as “fundamental actors in

community networks that specifically addressed the

the  universalisation  of  technological  appropriation

Roberto Arias Programme and its technical aspects.

of  communities.” To  sustain  and  extend  them,  she

For Mariela Baladrón, researcher, university profes-

said, “it is essential that there are market regulation

sor and director of the diploma, “the richness of this

policies.”17

diploma lies in the search for the construction of col-

Freedom of expression and access

lective knowledge, located and entangled between

to information

people with common interests and diverse perspec-

tives and trajectories.”

The COVID-19 “infodemic” also spread in Argentina.

Manuela Gonzales Ursi is both a professor in the

To mitigate it, the state news agency Télam launched

diploma programme and a member of the organisa-

an  information-checking  platform  called  Confiar

tion Atalaya. She said:

(“Trust”)  to  deal  with  false  information  about  the

coronavirus. The government also made agreements

The pandemic made visible the consequences of

with search engines and social networks to rank offi-

the  digital  divide  in  access  to  basic  rights. The

cial information on their platforms.

isolation had a major impact in poor neighbour-

On  8  April  2020,  the  Minister  of  Security  an-

hoods  and  exposed  the  lack  of  public  policies,

nounced that it was carrying out “cyber patrolling”

deficiencies in infrastructure, lack of water and,

of information publicly available on social networks

of course […] the lack of connectivity, which be-

to monitor “social humour”.18 Experts from local and

came essential in this context, mainly to sustain

international organisations pointed out that this ac-

schooling. This made it possible for our demands

tion “violates the presumption of innocence, breaks

to be reflected in public policies.

Manuela  points  out  that  the  development  of  the

17  Baladrón, M. (2021). Fondos del Servicio Universal para redes

ENACOM  programmes  is  an  example  of  this  influ-

comunitarias urbanas y rurales. Los programas Barrios Populares

ence,  and  that  the  political  will  of  the  government

y Roberto Arias en Argentina. In Instituto de Estudios de América

Latina y el Caribe,  V  Jornadas Internacionales de Estudios de

to carry the programmes forward was essential. She

América Latina y el Caribe.   Escenario regional de ofensiva capitalis-

explained:

ta y rebeliones populares. http://iealc.sociales.uba.ar/wp-content/

uploads/sites/57/2022/04/JORNADAS-IEALC-2021.pdf; Baladrón, As a non-profit civil association, we do not have

M. (2021). Universal Service Funds for Urban and Rural Community

Networks: The Barrios Populares and Roberto Arias Programs in

the  necessary  capital  to  make  the  investments

Argentina. In L. Belli & S. Hadzic, S. (Eds.),  Community Networks:

Towards sustainable funding models.  FGV Direito Rio. ttps://www.

intgovforum.org/en/filedepot_download/92/20438

16  Muller, A. (2021, 17 June). Programa Roberto Arias. Una puerta

18  Página/12. (2020, 18 April). El “ciberpatrullaje” en la mira

que abre la conectividad comunitaria en la Argentina.  AlterMundi.

de los organismos.  Página/12. https://www.pagina12.com.

https://altermundi.net/2021/06/17/programa-roberto-arias

ar/260497-el-ciberpatrullaje-en-la-mira-de-los-organismos

ARGENTINA / 71

the  expectation  of  privacy  and  turns  the  security

organisations  and  experts  in  information  tech-

forces  into  observers  of  public  discourse,”  in  this

nology.”  These  contributions  had  implications  in

way  “attacking  freedom  of  expression,  promoting

terms  of  the  mandatory  use  of  the  platforms,  data

self-censorship, and reducing citizen participation.”

proportionality,  privacy,  identification,  geolocation,

A  report  that  compares  measures  taken  in  Ar-

transparency of the source code and data processing

gentina, Brazil and Mexico19 says that fact-checking

at the end of the pandemic.20

initiatives,  together  with  the  measures  adopted  by

More recently, a group of internet rights organi-

social media platforms to reduce the massive spread

sations released an open letter to the executive and

of misinformation and disinformation, contributed to

legislative branches of government, addressing them

the public being able to access reliable information

on the dangers related to the violation of personal

about  COVID-19,  and  are  therefore  progressive  in

data and the risks associated with personal data.21

terms of human rights. On the other hand, the meas-

The open letter mentioned a series of worrying as-

ures to promote self-censorship and the “excessive”

pects such as cases where sensitive information was

use  of  artificial  intelligence  for  the  moderation  of

leaked, the lack of direction in the law enforcement

content by platforms at a global level are regressive

authority, and the judicial persecution of those who

in terms of rights.

had reported vulnerabilities in some computer sys-

tems. The Personal Data Protection Law in Argentina

Personal data and rights

was pioneering when it was created in 2000, but, as

The  Argentine  government  created  the  Cuidar

the letter pointed out, that was “before the internet

(“Care”)  application  to  regulate  the  movement  of

became  a  massive  tool  for  large-scale  data  pro-

people  during  isolation  measures,  and  to  guar-

cessing.” Currently it is considered one of the most

antee  access  to  health,  including  diagnosis  and

outdated in the region.

vaccination. Cuidar advises on symptoms, provides

“What happened to our data in 2020 is an abrupt

assistance  and  recommendations,  and  is  linked  to

acceleration  of  a  process  that  turns  people’s  daily

the certificates people need to circulate in public. In

lives  more  and  more  towards  digitisation,”  Beatriz

the  current  stage  of  the  pandemic,  the  application

Busaniche,  from  the Vía  Libre  Foundation,  noted.22

is used to issue vaccination certificates, which also

“Many situations that in other contexts would have

enable people to circulate in public spaces. Anoth-

raised a reaction [...] in this context became a strate-

er application that was extensively used during the

gy for dealing with a critical situation.”

pandemic  is  MI  Argentina,  which  was  launched  as

Beatriz said that epidemiological surveillance is

a “citizen digital profile” – an identification system

a necessity in any pandemic. However, she noted:

linked to a citizen management portal.

The big difference is that, in this pandemic, there

Before  the  pandemic,  there  were  questions

are a series of technological devices that enable

regarding  the  implementation  of  biometric  iden-

[surveillance] in a much more invasive and effi-

tification  systems  and  access  to  social  security

cient  way.  That  is  where  this  tension  between

information for political use. These included the dan-

epidemiological  surveillance,  public  health

gers associated with the use of artificial intelligence

measures and the momentary suspension of cer-

in  facial  recognition  technologies  (in  the  subway

tain rights comes into play.

in Buenos Aires, for example) and the use of social

data in the application of social policies (as exposed

in the province of Salta in which a birth control plan

Conclusion

stigmatised young women through social profiling).

In the current context of the health crisis, technolo-

This challenge became more visible in the context of

gies were resorted to for connectivity, for sustaining

the health crisis.

the online contact that isolation demanded, and also

The  government  recognised  that  “given  the

sensitivity  of  the  data  on  the  Cuidar  system  and

the  recommendations  of  the  WHO  [World  Health

20  Portal Argentina. (2020, 19 September). Cuidar: cuidado y transpar-

encia de un trabajo en sociedad. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/

Organization]  and  PAHO  [Pan  American  Health  Or-

noticias/cuidar-cuidado-y-transparencia-de-un-trabajo-en-sociedad

ganization],  the  platforms  were  improved  with

21  Access Now, et al. (2022, 28 January). Organizaciones de

contributions made by the health sector, the scien-

la sociedad civil solicitan la suspensión del desarrollo e

implementación de tecnologías de procesamiento masivo de datos

tific  field,  civil  society  organisations,  human  rights

personales en Argentina.  Access  Now. https://www.accessnow.org/

solicitud-suspension-tecnologias-procesamiento-masivo-datos-

personales-argentina

19  Bizberge, A., & Segura, M. S. (2020). Los derechos digitales durante

22  Martínez, C. R. (2021, 14 January). Beatriz Busaniche, activista digi-

la pandemia COVID-19 en Argentina, Brasil y México.  Revista de

tal: “Lo que pasó con nuestros datos en 2020 es casi una masacre”.

Comunicación, 19(2), 61-85. https://revistadecomunicacion.com/

elDiarioAR. https://www.eldiarioar.com/sociedad/beatriz-busan-

article/view/1939/1583

iche-activista-digital-paso-datos-masacre_128_6747272.html

72  /  Global Information Society Watch

for control. The latter was promoted mainly through

Although the group of organisations engaged in

health policies, and affected rights, but was neces-

internet rights is heterogeneous, it is consolidated

sary  for  the  epidemiological  surveillance  required

and  includes  different  successful  advocacy  expe-

to address the pandemic, even though the extent of

riences.  Working  together,  they  managed  to  make

their impact on rights needs to be debated.

their  demands  heard,  influence  the  promotion  of

The actions that took place during the pandem-

public policies, and improve existing ones.

ic  highlight  the  importance  of  the  participation  of

In these contexts in which measures are urgent,

civil  society  organisations  that  work  not  only  on

the  urgency  leaves  fertile  ground  for  hasty  deci-

the realisation of rights associated with access, but

sions without a proper consideration of rights. Even

guarantee that the use of technologies is carried out

regressive proposals that respond to the specific in-

in a way that respects rights. They are necessary to

terest of institutions or business can be created. But

help point out when policies may result in the viola-

they are also contexts in which collective work that

tion of rights in ways that may not be immediately

draws  on  the  accumulated  experience  of  different

obvious.

actors can respond to fresh opportunities.

In the case of Argentina, the participation of civil

society is evident with the policies promoting inter-

Action steps

net  access.  Organisations  pointed  out  the  lack  of

The following steps are necessary in Argentina:

access in communities and the concentration of the

•  Create awareness of the impact of the violation

market that results in unattainable prices for large

of rights that technology implies and strengthen

sectors of the population. Both the decree and the

awareness of the dangers and possible solutions

ENACOM programmes responded not only to the ex-

to this problem.

perience and input of these organisations, but also

created a situation where the organisations will con-

•  Strengthen  mechanisms  that  assess  rights  in

tinue to monitor the programmes. The Roberto Arias

the implementation of policies, involving people

Programme was a result of the tenacity of social or-

who have the technical, social and rights knowl-

ganisations committed to expanding internet access

edge to do so.

in  communities,  while  questioning  the  prevailing

•  Demand  regulatory  measures  that  encourage

model  of  access.  It  creates  a  model  that  respects

equal access for all, taking into account the fact

and  responds  to  the  needs  of  communities.  The

that various actors offering access in the private

advocacy  work  of  these  organisations  managed  to

sector  are  reluctant  to  modify  their  business

define and promote community networks and at the

models to achieve this.

same  time  consolidate  and  articulate  the  need  for

•  Demand transparency from the government and

community access with other actors. The pandemic,

from the private sector in the development and

which  made  this  need  more  visible  and  essential,

implementation of technologies that involve the

found  Argentina  with  a  government  that  listened,

processing of personal data.

and  with  a  regulatory  authority  willing  to  address

•  Create  awareness  campaigns  so  that  citizens

the challenge.

understand  how  data  collection  works  and  can

The  development  of  government  platforms  –

then use software, applications and platforms in

some implemented for the pandemic, others earlier,

an informed way.

but whose use was extended in this context – also

had the watchful eye of the organisations who kept a

check on the violations of rights that can occur when

these  technologies  are  used.  The  perspectives  of

these organisations not only influenced the govern-

ment and public sphere, but also the academic and

technical fields.

ARGENTINA / 73

BANGLADESH

A “LEARNING LOSS”: ONLINE EDUCATION DURING THE PANDEMIC

IN BANGLADESH

The  government  did  put  alternative  education

Bytesforall Bangladesh

Partha Sarker and Munir Hasan

streams in place. It ran online classes via Facebook

http://www.bytesforall.org

Live, Zoom and the Ministry of Education website.4

A YouTube channel – Amar Ghore, Amar School5 (My

School  is  at  My  Home)  –  was  also  developed,  and

Introduction

“Parliament TV” and radio were used to air record-

Although the right to education is not a fundamen-

ed classes for students through an initiative called

tal right contained in the Bangladeshi constitution,1

Ghore Boshe Shikhi (Let’s Learn at Home).

Article 17 of the constitution states clearly that the

However,  the  school  closure  and  long  absence

state shall adopt effective measures for the purpose

of  in-person  classes  changed  the  entire  landscape

of:

of learning in Bangladesh. The new phenomenon of

online classes introduced the old debate of the digi-

•  Establishing  a  uniform,  mass-oriented  and  uni-

tal divide and connectivity gap. Existing inequalities

versal  system  of  education  and  extending  free

in  terms  of  access  to  information  and  communica-

and compulsory education to all children to such

tions  technology  (ICT)  infrastructure,  connectivity,

a stage as may be determined by law.

content and opportunities exposed the impossibility

•  Relating  education  to  the  needs  of  society  and

of learning outcomes for many poorer communities

producing  properly  trained  and  motivated  citi-

in  the  country.  The  digital  divide  translated  into  a

zens to serve those needs.

learning divide.

•  Removing illiteracy within such time as may be

determined by law.

Context

Bangladesh is a success story in terms of providing

The government provides elementary education free

access  to  primary  and  secondary  level  education,

of  charge  in  public  schools,  available  to  all  at  the

particularly  for  female  students.  The  country’s  net

age of six. Secondary education is not totally free;

enrolment rate at the primary school level increased

students still have to pay tuition fees, but usually re-

from  80%  in  2000  to  98%  in  2015,6  and  120%  in

ceive stipends and subsidies to cover different costs.

2020.7 This rate can exceed 100% due to the inclu-

With  the  onset  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  the

sion of over-aged and under-aged students because

government decided to close all educational institu-

of early or late school entrance and grade repetition.

tions including primary and secondary schools for all

Secondary school net enrolment was around 74% in

in-person classes starting from 18 March 2020. After

2020,8 up from 54% in 2015 and 45% in 2000.9 These

nearly  18  months  of  closure,  the  schools  first  par-

are all pre-pandemic figures – but with the pandemic

tially opened on 11 September 2021. But the schools

the situation changed a lot.

closed  again  until  they  fully  re-opened  on  1  March

As the schools went online, access to the internet,

2022.  More  than  36  million  students  (including  17

computers and electricity became all too real a ques-

million in primary education) and one million teach-

tion.  Some  pre-pandemic  data  on  accessibility  and

ers could not attend 120,000 primary and secondary

schools  during  that  period  of  time.2  UNESCO  sug-

gests that it was one of the most restrictive school

4  http://digitalcontent.ictd.gov.bd/index.php/site/index

closures in the world.3

5  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ly88k5t6Wjw&list=PLoijsUvO

6bOXsEkuj8EH-wniEHomrd6Ps  6  World Bank. (2016, 13 October). Ensuring Education

for All Bangladeshis. https://www.worldbank.org/en/

1  http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367.html

results/2016/10/07/ensuring-education-for-all-bangladeshis

2  Uddin, M. (2020, 13 June). Effects of the pandemic on the education

7  http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/bd

sector in Bangladesh.  The Financial Express. https://www.

8  Ibid.

thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/effects-of-the-pandemic-on-the-

9  Arribas Layton, L., et al. (2021, 8 July). How to provide opportunities

education-sector-in-bangladesh-1592061447; see also: https://a2i.

for all? From girls’ education to women’s labor force participation

gov.bd/publication/teachers-portal

in Bangladesh.  World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/

3  https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/

education/how-provide-opportunities-all-girls-education-womens-

global-monitoring-school-closures-covid19/country-dashboard

labor-force-participation-bangladesh

74  /  Global Information Society Watch

connectivity will probably be helpful in this regard. A

the objectives of the use of ICTs in education was to

2019 survey10 from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statis-

make  education  services  accessible  “at  the  door-

tics (BBS) suggests that only 37.6% of households in

steps”  of  people  –  an  objective  which  was  tested

the country have access to the internet. This data also

during the pandemic.

has  a  socioeconomic  perspective.  According  to  the

A  review  on  the  implementation  of  the  Master

BBS, only 8.7% of the poorest 20% of households in

Plan  in  201916  (prior  to  the  pandemic)  shows  that

Bangladesh have internet access at home, compared

some  progress  had  been  made  in  enhancing  the

with  75.3%  of  the  richest  20%  of  households.  The

teaching and learning environment by using ICTs in

same report also found that only 5.6% of households

classrooms (the aim was one laptop and one projec-

in Bangladesh have a computer.11

tor per classroom) and getting teachers to co-create

Online  education  requires  uninterrupted

and  share  digital  content  via  the  teachers’  portal

high-speed  internet  or  broadband  connection.  In

managed by the Ministry of Education.17 But as the

Bangladesh, the average internet speed is 5 Mbps,

review suggests, many schools were still lagging in

which is one of the lowest in South Asia.12 In many

acquiring  devices  and  connectivity.  In  semi-urban

rural  households  there  is  only  one  mobile  phone,

and rural areas in particular, learners and teachers

which  the  families  were  unable  to  dedicate  to

were still facing significant challenges due to limited

children’s remote learning or online education. Tel-

infrastructure, and when ICT facilities existed, inade-

evision  is  an  important  tool  for  remote  learning.

quate internet connectivity meant they could not be

However,  the  same  BBS  report13  suggests  that  na-

properly used.

tionally,  only  51%  of  households  own  televisions.

This  baseline  information  was  important  to

Out of that, only 4.8% of the poorest 20% of house-

understand the context of education when the pan-

holds  have  a  television  compared  to  90.2%  of  the

demic hit hard in Bangladesh and the schools were

richest 20% of households.

closed.  During  the  pandemic,  the  MoE’s  teachers’

To reflect the constitutional guarantee at all lev-

portal had to be repurposed. Teachers were encour-

els of education, Bangladesh formulated its National

aged  to  be  “ICT  for  education  ambassadors”  and

Education Policy in 2010.14 The primary objectives of

to  initiate  and  facilitate  online  classes,  collaborat-

this policy are directed toward the cultivation of hu-

ing on and co-creating content. More than 100,000

man values and seeking ways through which citizens

classes have been added to the teachers’ portal for

can be groomed to become leaders in pro-people de-

online delivery.18

velopment programmes and other initiatives geared

towards the progress of the society. The education

Inequalities in the time of the school closure

policy  also  attached  importance  to  ICTs  along  with

The  pandemic-related  lockdown  probably  had  the

STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths)

toughest  impact  in  the  education  sector  of  Bang-

to  build  up  “digital  Bangladesh”  and  a  knowl-

ladesh.  When  the  primary  and  secondary  schools

edge-based society.

were  first  closed  for  in-person  classes,  millions  of

The Ministry of Education (MoE) in Bangladesh

students and parents were clueless about their next

first  thought  and  strategised  about  using  ICTs  in

course of action. Eventually, the schools were closed

education in 2012 through the Master Plan for Infor-

for such a long time that Sheldon Yett, the UNICEF

mation and Communication Technology in Education

representative  to  Bangladesh,  emphasised  that

(2012-2021).15  The  plan  was  expected  to  result  in

“schools  should  be  among  the  last  institutions  to

education  for  all,  an  improvement  in  the  standard

close,  and  among  the  first  to  reopen,  as  we  put  in

of  education,  a  skilled  workforce,  and  the  eradica-

measures to tackle infection waves.”19

tion of the digital divide and discrimination. One of

This long closure coupled with a lack of access

to internet connectivity not only created a learning

divide, but also a learning loss. For example, in three

10  Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2019).  Bangladesh Multiple

Indicator Cluster Survey 2019: Key Findings.  http://bbs.portal.

rounds  of  COVID-19  follow-up  surveys,  studies  by

gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/

b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/3

7817b8e25d0d6c1f442e294921ff85e.pdf

16  Ministry of Education. (2019).  Master Plan for ICT in Education in

11  Uddin, M. (2020, 13 June). Op. cit.

Bangladesh (2012-2021): Progress Review Report 2019. https://

12  Prothom Alo. (2018, 24 April). Internet speed is slowest in

unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372984/PDF/372984eng.

Bangladesh.  Prothom Alo. https://en.prothomalo.com/

pdf.multi

science-technology/Internet-speed-is-slowest-in-Bangladesh

17  http://www.teachers.gov.bd

13  Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2019). Op. cit.

18  Ibid.

14  https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/national-education-

19  UNICEF Bangladesh. (2022, 24 January). COVID-19: Scale of education

policy-2010-enbn

loss ‘nearly insurmountable’, warns UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/

15  https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ressources/

bangladesh/en/press-releases/covid-19-scale-education-loss-nearly-

bangladesh_master_plan_ict.pdf

insurmountable-warns-unicef

BANGLADESH / 75

the Population Council20 suggested that one third of

the school closure. This means the learning loss has

girls or less (21%, 16% and 34% in round 1, round 2

been greater than what it should be because of the

and round 3, respectively) followed televised class-

school  closure.”25  It  also  showed  that  only  25%  of

es. Time  spent  studying  declined  drastically:  while

rural children with access to the television followed

pre-pandemic average study time was seven to eight

the classes. Use of the internet in learning was al-

hours  per  day,  this  declined  to  two  hours  per  day

most non-existent among the students surveyed.

during COVID-19-related school closures.

The long interruption of in-person classes in the

Numeracy and literacy scores have declined sig-

schools  and  the  delivery  of  education  through  on-

nificantly. The World Bank identifies this learning loss

line  means  had  some  other  serious  socioeconomic

as learning poverty, which is defined as a lack of abil-

consequences.

ity to read and understand a simple story at 10 years

Many child rights advocates opined that tens of

of  age.  Prior  to  the  pandemic,  this  learning  poverty

thousands  of  students  across  the  country  did  not

was 56% in Bangladesh, but after the long school clo-

return to classes after the schools were reopened.26

sure and non-functional and poorly designed remote

The majority, they say, are boys ages 12 and above,

learning, this rate may have gone up to 70%.21

who  during  the  interim  were  pushed  into  full-time

Another World Bank study22 shows that the disrup-

work.  This  was  also  echoed  by  Tomoo  Hozumi,

tions have already led to a decline in student learning

UNICEF  representative  in  Bangladesh,  who  stated

and retention. Bangladesh’s learning adjusted years

in 2021: “With school closures in place since March

of schooling (LAYS) are expected to fall from 6.0 years

2020 and poverty levels rising amidst the pandemic,

in 2019 to 5.3 years in 2021,23 costing the Bangladesh

UNICEF is concerned that growing numbers of chil-

economy between USD 67 billion and USD 114 billion

dren  are  being  pushed  into  child  labour.”27  This  is

in GDP (based on January 2021 estimates).

happening  because  household  incomes  across  the

In  May  2020,  the  MoE  prepared  a  COVID-19

country  plunged  by  an  average  of  23%  during  the

Response and Recovery Plan24 for primary and sec-

first  18  months  of  the  pandemic  and  families  were

ondary  education,  which  also  identified  learning

using all means possible to survive.28

loss,  inequality  of  learning,  an  increase  in  dropout

This  same  reason  also  forced  many  families  to

rates, etc. as some of the possible consequences of

arrange  early  marriage  for  their  girl  children,  who

a  long  school  closure.  The  report  took  into  cogni-

otherwise could be going to school. One survey29 con-

sance that only 44% of 5-11-year-old children in rural

ducted by the non-profit Manusher Jonno Foundation

areas and 6% of children belonging to the poorest

recorded  almost  14,000  underage  marriages  across

wealth quintile have a television at home. Similarly,

one-third of the country during the first six months of

only 3% of rural 5-11-year-old children and close to

lockdown, with half of the girls aged 13 to 15.

0% in the poorest wealth quintile have a computer at

In  pre-pandemic  times,  in  the  104  most  pover-

home. Regarding the internet, only 30% of 5-11-year-

ty-prone areas in Bangladesh, the government with

olds in rural areas have internet access and just 7%

assistance  from  the  World  Food  Programme  (WFP)

in  the  poorest  wealth  quintile  –  generally,  through

used  to  run  different  school  feeding  programmes

mobile phones.

to  reach  nearly  three  million  children.30  With  the

Another study conducted by the BRAC Institute

closure  of  the  schools,  the  feeding  programme

of Governance and Development at the beginning of

also  stopped,  creating  a  further  risk  of  poverty,

the  pandemic  (June  2020)  showed  that  “the  study

time at home actually went down from usual during

25  BRAC Institute of Governance and Development. (2020).

Coronavirus Outbreak, Schooling and Learning: Study on Secondary

School Students in Bangladesh. https://bigd.bracu.ac.bd/study/

20  Amin, S., Hossain, M. I., & Ainul, S. (2021).  Learning Loss

coronavirus-outbreak-schooling-and-learning-study-on-secondary-

Among Adolescent Girls During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Rural

school-students-in-bangladesh

Bangladesh.  Population Council. https://www.popcouncil.org/

26  Redfern, C., & Ahsan, A. (2022, 26 April). Tens of Thousands of

uploads/pdfs/2021SBSR_LearningLossBangladesh.pdf

Boys in Bangladesh Were Forced into Work During the Pandemic.

21  Ahmed, M. (2022, 13 February). Learning loss from Covid-19:

Now School Is Resuming Without Them.  TIME. https://time.

Can a generational threat be averted?  The Daily Star. https://

com/6170432/bangladesh-child-labor-pandemic/

www.thedailystar.net/recovering-covid-reinventing-our-future/

27  UNICEF Bangladesh. (2021, 11 June). Child labour rises to 160

blueprint-brighter-tomorrow/news/learning-loss-covid-19-2960811

million – first increase in two decades. https://www.unicef.org/

22  World Bank. (2021, 18 April). Keeping Bangladesh’s Students

bangladesh/en/press-releases/child-labour-rises-160-million-

Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.worldbank.

first-increase-two-decades

org/en/results/2021/04/18/keeping-bangladesh-s-students-

28  BRAC Institute of Governance and Development. (2022).  PPRC-BIGD

learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic

COVID-19 Livelihoods & Recovery Panel Survey. https://bigd.bracu.

23  Ibid.

ac.bd/study/rapid-survey-on-immediate-economic-vulnerabilities-

24  Ministry of Primary and Mass Education. (2020).  COVID-19

created-by-covid-19-and-the-coping-mechanisms-of-poor-and-

Response and Recovery Plan: Education Sector.  https://planipolis.

marginal-people/

iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ressources/bangladesh_moe_

29  Redfern, C., & Ahsan, A. (2022, 26 April). Op. cit.

covid_19_response_and_recovery_plan.pdf

30  Uddin, M. (2020, 13 June). Op. cit.

76  /  Global Information Society Watch

malnutrition  and  illness.  Although  the  WFP  later

In  the  context  of  Bangladesh,  schools  are  not

found  a  way  around  this  by  creating  a  take-home

merely  education  institutes  –  they  are  local-level

food rationing programme, not all children were cov-

establishments  that  make  broader  socioeconomic

ered or reached through this programme.

contributions. The fact that school closure led to an

increased drop-out rate, child labour, child marriage,

Conclusion

malnutrition, etc. proves that the individual level of

Despite  the  fact  that  online  education  due  to  the

access  to  social  services  needs  to  be  enhanced  as

school  closure  created  a  learning  divide,  and  had

much as access to education.

other socioeconomic consequences in Bangladesh,

the  hybrid  model  of  education  (i.e.  a  mix  of  online

Action steps

and offline education) is here to stay. The fact that

Civil society in Bangladesh still does not have a total

Bangladesh could not ensure access to many rural

picture of the learning loss and possible long-term

and remote families does not mean that the idea of

impact  of  online  education  due  to  the  school  clo-

online education is to blame. However, Bangladesh

sures. Research needs to be done by collating and

was  less  prepared  in  terms  of  its  delivery  of  infra-

reviewing disparate research pieces on the topic, by

structure than it should have been.

interviewing relevant stakeholders, and conducting

The Master Plan for ICT in Education31 developed

a survey with the students and teachers directly af-

by  the  MoE  has  identified  issues  related  to  digital

fected by the closures.

content development, introducing ICTs as a subject

Civil  society  also  needs  to  see  what  policy  in-

or topic in education, and the development of teach-

terventions  can  be  brought  to  address  the  needs

ing-learning materials, but talks less about delivery

of broadband connectivity, digital content, learning

mechanisms. Most of the infrastructure was centred

resources,  and  capacity  building,  among  others.

around schools or teacher training institutes. Many

Policy  advocacy  could  involve  a  campaign  built  on

schools have multimedia classrooms, and teachers

evidence-based  research,  including  collecting  best

could collaborate on, prepare and share digital con-

practices from other countries.

tent using the teachers’ portal. But for a disaster like

Policy  options  should  explore  the  potential  of

the lockdown, what was required was individual ac-

broadband  service  providers  and  mobile  phone

cess to affordable devices and connectivity.

companies  creating  separate  tariff  layers  for  stu-

The National Broadband Policy 2009,32 updated

dents and for educational purposes, as well as the

in 2018, had a vision to connect all areas with high-

potential of government support or subsidies in this

speed  broadband  internet  and  provide  broadband

regard.

for all with affordable internet and devices. The pan-

demic has however exposed the reality of the access

divide and the importance of the internet in the case

of  learning  and  education.  Any  new  tariff  structure

for  broadband  should  therefore  keep  in  mind  the

needs and affordability of these tariffs for students.

31  Ministry of Education. (2019). Op. cit.

32  http://old.btrc.gov.bd/national-broadband-policy

BANGLADESH / 77

BENIN

FROM E-SERVICES TO E-DEMOCRACY: STRENGTHENING PUBLIC

PARTICIPATION AND RIGHTS IN BENIN

institutionalising  e-voting  in  parallel,2  would  be  an

Sênoudé Pacôme Tomètissi

tometissi@gmail.com

invaluable opportunity for the country to meet its hu-

man rights targets, while keeping pace with the rapid

technological changes taking place across the world.

Introduction

The state of democracy in Benin

In 2020, instead of lockdowns, Benin opted for san-

The Republic of Benin (formerly the Republic of Da-

itary  cordons  around  the  regions  affected  by  the

homey) gained international sovereignty on 1 August

virus, allowing the free movement of people within

1960. From 1960 to 1989, the country experienced a

the restricted area. This was done alongside meas-

turbulent constitutional and political evolution. Fol-

ures such as promoting hygiene, social distancing,

lowing  a  deep  economic  and  socio-political  crisis,

and the shutting down of non-essential services. De-

the country organised a national conference to de-

spite this “softer” approach to containing the virus,

fine a new type of government. The  Conference des

the measures nevertheless appeared to increase the

Forces Vives  de  la  Nation   ran    from  19  to  28  Febru-

use and reach of the internet during the first years of

ary 1990, opening a new era of political liberalism.3

the pandemic.

Political  leaders  participated  in  the  conference,

While  the  number  of  internet  and  social  media

paving the way for democratic elections and politi-

users increased between 2020 and 2021 – the latter

cal change not only in Benin, but also in most other

almost  doubling  –  there  were  also  indications  that

countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.4

the government’s online public services were more

Afrobarometer,  a  pan-African  non-partisan  re-

widely used.

search  network  on  democracy,  governance  and

The government’s flagship projects on e-govern-

related  issues  in  Africa,  noted  that  almost  three-

ance, e-education and e-commerce, initiated before

fourths of people in Benin prefer democracy to other

the  coronavirus  pandemic,  were  instrumental  in

types of governments.5 However, Benin’s democracy

making these public services available. By 2020 an

remains on shaky ground.

impressive number of online services were already

While from 1990 to 2021 Benin held seven presi-

offered by the government,1   in particular through its

dential and eight legislative elections in addition to

online administration project called Smart Gouv .

a  referendum  in  1990,  in  2019  violence  erupted  in

With  evidence  of  the  success  of  these  services

the country, particularly during the legislative elec-

during the early stages of the pandemic, one of the

tion  process  in  which  the  opposition  was  not  able

key policy questions for decision makers now is how

to capitalise on their use as a basis for the consoli-

dation  of  democracy.  This  not  only  through  finding

2  ‘’Päivärinta, T., & Sæbø, Ø. (2006). Models of E-Democracy.

Communications of the Association for Information Systems,  17.

shortcuts to reducing inequalities by providing access

https://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.01737; Freeman, J., & Quirke, S.

to technology and enabling the right to information,

(2013). Understanding E-Democracy Government-Led Initiatives

but also by encouraging popular participation in the

for Democratic Reform.  JeDEM - EJournal of EDemocracy and Open

Government, 5(2), 141-154. https://doi.org/10.29379/jedem.

formulation  of  public  policies  and  developing  mobi-

v5i2.221; Blumler, J. G., & Coleman, S. (2001).  Realising Democracy lisation strategies around electoral processes. In the

Online: A Civic Commons in Cyberspace. IPPR/Citizens Online.

http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/3240/

wake  of  the  successful  organisation  of  an  e-voting

blumler.pdf

process to elect trade union representation in January

3  Heilbrunn, J. R. (1993). Social Origins of National Conferences

2021,  the  potential  for  wide-reaching  changes  feels

in Benin and Togo.  The Journal of Modern African Studies,  31(2),

stronger now than it has ever before.

277-299. https://www.academia.edu/7503344/Social_Origins_of_

National_Conferences_in_Benin_and_Togo?from=cover_page

The  political  will  and  the  necessary  mobilisa-

4  Amuwo, K. (2003). The State and the Politics of Democratic

tion of resources to design and implement, as far as

Consolidation in Benin 1990-1999. In J. O. Ihonvbere & J. M. Mbaku

possible, a system of direct democracy online, while

(Eds.),  Political Liberalizations and Democratization in Africa.

Lessons from Country Experiences.  Praeger.

5  Scheller, C., & Lazar, M. (2019).  Is Benin’s democracy living up to its

reputation?  Afrobarometer.  https://www.afrobarometer.org/sites/

1  See, for example: https://www.service-public.bj and https://

default/files/publications/Dispatches/ab_r7_dispatchno321_is_

numerique.gouv.bj/reformes/les-projets#

benins_democracy_living_up_to_its_reputation.pdf

78  /  Global Information Society Watch

to  take  part  due  to  new  electoral  rules. There  was

press briefing, the NGO  La Voix des Consommateurs

also political unrest in 2021 during the presidential

asked for a reduction in the cost of internet data in

election process and several politicians close to the

Benin while denouncing the poor quality of mobile

opposition were arrested.

network services.9 For mobile data, the cost of 1.5

In  March  2020,  in  its  concluding  observations

GB is about USD 4.10

on Benin’s third periodic report, the UN’s Committee

The number of internet users (+18%) and of so-

on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights highlighted

cial media users (+45%) increased in Benin between

that one of the strategic axes of the government’s ac-

2020  and  2021  while  there  were  10.27  million  mo-

tion programme for 2016-2021 aimed to strengthen

bile connections in Benin in January 2021 (+3.8%).11

fundamental  social  services  and  social  protection.

There is, however, no known data that shows an in-

However, the Committee also recommended that Be-

crease in internet use due to the virus.

nin review the legal provisions relating to gatherings

and the dissemination of false information in order

The provision of e-government services

to allow human rights defenders to work freely and

Smart Gouv is one of the six flagship projects of the

without fear.

government’s  digital  strategy.  It  aims  to  promote

In this context, voter turnout appears to be dwin-

good governance and the transparent management

dling.  Turnout  in  the  legislative  elections  in  2019

of public resources, and was implemented from 2016

was only 27.1% compared to 65.9% in 2015,6 while

to 2021 with the support of the Estonian e-Govern-

50.17% of voters cast their ballot for the presidential

ance Academy. Given it was only completed the year

elections in 2021, compared to 66.13% in 2016.7

the  pandemic  hit,12  its  practical  effectiveness  had

not yet been tested when it was needed the most.

Beyond e-government: Using ICT projects

However, the usefulness of the project   to the public

to consolidate democracy

became evident in the first year of the virus.

The  fast-tracking  of  e-government  projects  like

Smart  Gouv  gives  people  access  to  hundreds

Smart  Gouv  during  the  first  year  of  the  COVID-19

of official documents and services online, includ-

pandemic has created the necessary momentum to

ing  criminal  records,  and  facilities  to  pay  taxes

capitalise on the potential of strengthening a partici-

and  for  electricity.  The  benefits  of  the  project  are

patory democracy in Benin through institutionalising

demonstrable, as in this example:

online  democratic  participation.  There  are  several

To apply for a position in the civil service, Dela-

levers to this that need to be supported by civil soci-

li13 needed to get her criminal record, one of the

ety. These include: the promotion of affordable and

documents required in the application process.

meaningful  internet  access;  the  ongoing  provision

As  she  was  born  in  Malanville  in  the  north  of

of  government  services  and  access  to  information

Benin,  Delali,  who  now  lives  in  Cotonou,  had

online,  particularly  with  the  view  of  strengthening

to travel to Malanville, 732 km away, to get her

transparency and accountability; the strengthening

criminal  record.  Like  her,  each  of  the  63,700

of the independence of a free and fair media, espe-

candidates  whose  applications  were  accepted

cially  online;  the  practical  application  of  e-voting

and  who  competed  in  November  2017  for  one

to motivate an interest in democratic participation,

of the 326 positions at the Ministry of Economy

especially  among  the  youth,  while  also  aiming  at

had to go and get their criminal record where

increasing  voter  turnout;  and  advocacy  campaigns

they were born. And, like them, all applicants

that encourage the government to not resort to in-

to public administration positions have to pro-

ternet shutdowns as a mechanism of control.

vide  a  criminal  record.  With  the  Smart  Gouv,

Affordable internet access

When  it  comes  to  internet  affordability,  a  recent

UNESCO report ranks Benin among the top 10 coun-

9  https://www.beninwebtv.com/benin-la-voix-des-consommateurs-

tries of Africa.8 However, in November 2021 during a

milite-pour-la-reduction-du-cout-de-linternet

10  https://www.mtn.bj/particuliers/internet/forfaits-volumes/

data-volumes

6  https://www.jeuneafrique.com/770256/politique/legislatives-

11  https://www.datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-benin. The

au-benin-un-taux-de-participation-de-27-selon-la-cour-

report states that its statistics on social media users should not be

constitutionnelle

equated with unique users.

7  https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1154144/politique/benin-patrice-

12  Lani, M. (2021). Case study: Benin and Estonia’s e-government

talon-reelu-des-le-premier-tour-selon-la-commission-electorale

partnership. In OECD. (2021).  Development Co-operation

8  Kiyindou, A. (2020).  Evaluation du développement de l’Internet

Report 2021: Shaping a Just Digital Transformation. https://doi.

au Bénin: utilisation des indicateurs ROAM-X de l’universalité de

org/10.1787/37ad9025-en

l’Internet de l’UNESCO.  https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/

13  Delali is an imagined character who is nevertheless representative

pf0000374577

of an everyday experience.

BENIN / 79

the  criminal  record  is  obtained  online. This  is

appointment processes in public administration, al-

a great relief for all candidates in all competi-

lowing citizens to follow the nomination processes.16

tions for civil service positions.

Strengthening of a free media

From  July  2020  to  August  2021  –  roughly  the  first

year and a half of the pandemic – more than 100,000

The  digital  economy  is  a  key  aspect  of  democracy.

criminal records were issued in this way.

The Digital Code in Benin provides a framework for

Benin’s  digital  strategy  aims  to  create  digital

the regulation of the digital economy with rules on

services platforms for accelerating growth and so-

cybersecurity,  digital  infrastructure  development,

cial inclusion in the country. By doing so, it aims to

and affordable internet access.17 There are, however,

offer better access to information and knowledge,

several aspects that need to be improved.

catalyse  the  economic  development  of  all  sectors

For example, several local and international civil

of activity, and improve the transparency of govern-

society groups and the UN Economic, Social and Cul-

ance  and  the  efficiency  of  administration  centred

tural Rights Committee called on the government to

on the citizen. For example, the implementation of

revise its digital code to better protect human rights,

the  personal  identification  number  has  facilitated

especially  those  related  to  freedom  of  expression

access  to  social  protection  and  has  simplified  ad-

and surveillance.18

ministrative procedures.

The  Union  of  Media  Professionals  in  Benin,

14

Several agencies have been created for the im-

the  largest  association  of  journalists  in  the  coun-

plementation of the digital strategy, in particular to

try, organised a workshop for media professionals,

prepare and monitor national digital policies. Among

lawyers and activists in August 2020 to discuss the

other government agencies, there is the Digital De-

digital code and send comments to the government

velopment  Agency,  responsible  for  high-speed  and

and  the  parliament.  The  union  has  asked  for  an

very  high-speed  infrastructure;  the  Information

amendment  to  the  code  because  of  several  provi-

Services  and  Systems  Agency,  which  is  in  charge

sions deemed restrictive to the freedom of the media

of  the  execution  of  the  flagship  projects  including

and expression.19

Smart Gouv, and the implementation of the national

On 28 April 2019, the day of the legislative elec-

information systems master plan; and the National

tions in Benin, social networks, including messaging

Agency  for  the  Identification  of  Persons,  which  is

applications  for  Facebook,  Twitter,  WhatsApp  and

responsible for operationalising the biometric data-

Telegram,  were  blocked.  Following  this  there  was

base and storing personal identification numbers in

a  total  internet  shutdown  throughout  the  country.

a database.

Benin civil society groups and several international

Several  other  institutions  help  coordinate  the

human  rights  organisations  including  Amnesty  In-

regulation  and  monitoring  of  specific  digital  op-

ternational,  Internet  Without  Borders  and  Internet

erations:  the  Regulatory  Authority  for  Electronic

Society  Benin  condemned  the  internet  shutdown

Communications,  the  Personal  Data  Protection

and the blocking of social networks.

Authority, the National Agency for the Safety of In-

In  April  2021,  before  the  presidential  election,

formation Systems, the Central Office for Combating

a  coalition  of  civil  society  organisations  including

Cybercrimes, and the Authority for Audiovisual and

Internet Society Benin launched a digital campaign

Communication.

to draw the attention of decision makers and other

COVID-19  accelerated  the  implementation  of

public institutions to the serious consequences of an

dozens  of  electronic  government  services,  such  as

internet  shutdown  on  the  economy  and  education,

applying  for  visas  and  tax  clearance  certificates,

and specifically on the digital sector.

through  this  digital  strategy.  This  is  an  important

The  Internet  Governance  Forum  (IGF)  Benin,

step  towards  meeting  citizens’  rights  through  pro-

one  of  the  civil  society  organisations  that  carry

viding access to information and key public services

the  voice  of  consumers,  organises  annual  nation-

online.

al  forums  on  the  governance  of  the  internet  for

15 These  initiatives  have  also  been  set  up  to

encourage  transparency  and  fight  corruption.  For

example, the launch of a digital platform for submit-

ting CVs for senior positions in public expenditure in

the country aims to increase the transparency in the

16  https://www.fichiernational.gouv.bj/#

17  https://www.afapdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Benin-Loi-

2017-20-Portant-code-du-numerique-en-Republique-du-Benin.pdf

18  Jarroux, P., & Tama, B. C. (2020). Benin. In A. K. Awedoba, B. Kamski,

A. Mehler, & D. Sebudubudu (Eds.),  Africa Yearbook Volume 16. Brill.

14  https://numerique.gouv.bj/images/DPS.pdf

19  http://www.ortb.bj/infos-une/medias-lupmb-lance-la-reflexion-

15  https://www.service-public.bj

pour-une-relecture-du-code-du-numerique

80  /  Global Information Society Watch

stakeholders.  The  eighth  edition  of  its  forum  (in

openness and people’s participation in credible pub-

2019)  was  devoted  to  human  rights,  in  particular

lic processes.23

digital rights and their importance in our societies.

There  are  a  few  examples  of  participatory  citi-

The  aim  was  to  underline  the  responsibilities  of

zen initiatives in Benin. The most well-known is the

government  authorities  in  providing  unrestricted

Programme on Citizen Participation in Public Policy

access to the internet for all, while supporting the

Development in Benin (PartiCiP), implemented in all

formulation of public policies likely to make it more

77 municipalities in the country by the NGOs Alcrer

accessible, more affordable and more available in

and Social Watch Benin. The programme has set up

terms of digital infrastructure and data quality. The

Citizen’s Participation Units at the local level in or-

forum was also an opportunity to encourage tele-

der  to  strengthen  a  culture  of  citizen  involvement

communications service providers to adopt policies

in their own development, and the implementation

that address online disinformation and misinforma-

and monitoring of public policies that take into ac-

tion or “fake news”.20

count the aspirations of grassroots populations and

The  establishment  of  the  Media  Development

organisations. PartiCiP activities include information

Support Fund (FADEM) in accordance with article 39

sessions,  radios  programmes,  village  assemblies

of the Information and Communication Code allows

and hearings on public accountability.24

the  government  to  set  up  an  institutional  frame-

By taking this initiative online, through electronic

work  to  support  media  freedom.21  This  fund  is  an

platforms, social networks and mobile applications,

opportunity  to  support  online  media  that  promote

it  will  become  possible  to  establish  an  online  de-

fair information and strengthen democracy and hu-

mocracy,  in  particular  if  digital  infrastructures  and

man  rights.  In  such  a  context,  the  government’s

the  technological  capabilities  of  vulnerable  groups

commitment  to  promote  digital  content  is  also  an

are ensured.

opportunity  to  promote  citizen-led  participatory

This idea is not far-fetched. On 24 January 2021,

documentary film-making that highlights economic,

the  country’s  electoral  commission  organised  elec-

social and cultural rights.

tions  to  designate  the  most  representative  trade

However, this needs to happen with other chang-

union  federations  in  Benin.  As  announced  by  the

es in the media freedoms context.

cabinet one month earlier, the vote was to be held

Currently,  although  senior  positions  in  public

electronically. All public administration workers and

media are shortlisted by the Authority for Audiovis-

those in the private sector affiliated with the Nation-

ual  and  Communication,  the  public  media  are  still

al Social Security Agency voted online. Connectivity

under the supervision of the government and man-

points  were  made  available  to  workers  throughout

agers are nominated by the head of state during a

the country in order to facilitate voting for those who

cabinet  meeting.  In  January  2022,  the  Authority  of

did  not  have  digital  devices  such  as  smartphones,

Audiovisual  and  Communication  authorised  59  on-

tablets  or  computers.25  Implementing  an  e-voting

line  media  operators  in  Benin.22 The  release  of  the

system  might  increase  the  participation  of  young

list came after the suspension in 2020 of all online

people in the legislative and presidential elections.

media  by  the  Authority,  many  of  whom  had  been

publishing without a licence.

Participatory democracy and e-voting

Beyond  the  protection  of  digital  rights  and  the

23  Freeman, J., & Quirke, S. (2013). Op. cit.; Clift, S. (2003).

improvement  of  people’s  access  to  technology

E-Democracy, E-Governance and Public Net-Work. Publicus.

(including  their  technological  capabilities),  the  po-

Net. http://www.opensourcejahrbuch.de/download/jb2004/

chapter_04/IV-5-Clift.pdf; Coleman, S., & Gøtze, J. (2001).  Bowling tential  exists  to  simultaneously  develop  agendas

Together: Online Public Engagement in Policy Deliberation. Hansard

that will help shape an effective online democracy in

Society. https://www.academia.edu/26878057/Bowling_together_

Online_public_engagement_in_policy_deliberation?from=cover_

Benin. Such an option would increase transparency,

page; Chadwick, A. (2003). Bringing e-democracy back in: Why it matters for future research on e-governance.  Social Science

Computer Review,  21(4), 443-455. https://www.dhi.ac.uk/san/

waysofbeing/data/citizenship-robson-chadwick-2003a.pdf; 20  https://fgi.bj/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Rapport-de-la-8eme-

Djengue, S. (2021). Enjeux et opportunités de la révolution du

Edition-du-Forum-pour-la-Gouvernance-d%e2%80%99internet-au-

numérique : comment rattraper sans coup férir le retard au Benin?

Benin-2.pdf

In A. Schott & L. Vieira (Eds.),  Territoires intelligents et sociétés

21  https://www.gouv.bj/actualite/786/financement-secteur-medias-

apprenantes : XVe Conférence Internationale EUTIC Dakar. http://

benin-ministre-orounla-concerte-avec-odem-fadem

www.conference-eutic.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Actes-

2019-Eutic-A1-A3.pdf#page=57

22  https://www.matinlibre.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/

Dec-N%C2%B022-003-HAAC-du-19-janvier-2022-portant-selection-

24  https://rsr.akvo.org/en/project/6521/#updates

requerant.pdf; https://www.voaafrique.com/a/les-journalistes-

25  http://www.faapa.info/blog/societe-les-elections-professionnelles-

contre-la-suspension-des-médias-en-ligne-au-bénin/5511719.html

du-dimanche-se-feront-par-voie-electronique-declare-fred-whannou

BENIN / 81

Conclusion

•  Amend  some  of  the  provisions  of  the  Digital

The  election  of  Benin  to  the  UN  Human  Rights

Code.  The  Digital  Code  is  an  excellent  tool  for

Council  despite  criticism  in  October  2021  is  an  op-

addressing  key  issues  in  the  sector.  All  stake-

portunity  to  push  for  a  stronger  democracy  and

holders  unanimously  welcomed  it  when  it  was

for the greater protection of people’s rights.26 With

passed in parliament, especially with respect to

the  dozens  of  online  services  already  available,

its mechanisms to address cybercrime. However,

and an increase in the use of these services during

there are several aspects that need to be revised

COVID-19,  the  country  has  the  opportunity  to  use

to protect freedom of expression, and which are

technology as a strategy to strengthen governance.

critical to an e-democracy agenda. These include

Digital strategies such as online voting have already

articles that criminalise the publication of false

proved effective, while grassroots citizen initiatives

information and those that relate to online me-

could be digitised. The media also has a role to play

dia offences.

here in representing the voices and the aspirations

•  Use  the  Media  Development  Support  Fund  to

of ordinary people, so that a real direct participatory

support online media that promote fair informa-

democracy can be built.27 This will take the political

tion, and that aim to strengthen democracy and

will of all stakeholders involved, and research-based

human  rights.  Key  media  platforms  in  this  re-

advocacy from civil society to push for these chang-

spect include Banouto.bj and www.crystal-news.

es,  taking  into  cognisance  both  the  potential  and

net.

limitations  of  e-democracy  in  a  country  like  Benin.

•  Strengthen  the  Authority  of  Audiovisual  and

Anti-democratic  measures  such  as  internet  shut-

Communication  as  an  institution  for  protecting

downs need to be kept in check, and the success of

and  regulating  the  media,  while  limiting  the

online measures that seek to promote transparency

government’s  influence  on  the  governance  and

in  the  government  sector  monitored.  This  requires

content of public media. A more independent au-

new  advocacy  and  monitoring  strategies  by  civil

thority is needed to promote access to fair news

society, based on a broader vision of establishing a

coverage and information in line with the politi-

workable  e-democracy  framework  as  a  foundation

cal, social and cultural diversity of the country.

for participatory democracy in the country.

•  Institutionalise  e-voting  in  order  to  increase

Action steps

voter  turnout.  Combining  online  ballots  and

physical voting can help reach a larger audience

In order to build on the current momentum in access-

and increase people’s interest in public process-

ing  government  services  online,  and  the  culture  of

es and democracy.

transparency  being  promoted  in  the  e-government

programme, there are several areas of engagement

•  Investigate  the  possibility  and  potential  of  tak-

where civil society could place its energy and advo-

ing grassroots participatory initiatives online.

cacy efforts:

•  Support  the  civil  society  advocacy  agenda

•  Reduce internet costs while maintaining quality.

against  internet  shutdowns.  These  are  funda-

The high cost of data is an obstacle to promot-

mentally  anti-democratic,  weaken  the  potential

ing  e-citizenship.  For  the  trade  union  elections

impact of the current e-government agenda, and

mentioned  above,  voting  was  entirely  online.

would work against building any long-term, par-

However,  in  several  localities  dozens  of  people

ticipatory e-democracy in the country.

could not vote for lack of internet access or be-

cause of its cost.

26  https://www.un.org/en/ga/76/meetings/elections/hrc.shtml

27  Albert, I. O. (2009). Whose E-Governance?: A Critique of Online

Citizen Engagement in Africa.  International Journal of eBusiness

and eGovernment Studies,  1(1), 27-40. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/

download/article-file/257094

82  /  Global Information Society Watch

BRAZIL

THE INTERNET, TECHNOLOGIES AND INEQUALITIES IN BRAZIL:

THE INVISIBILITY OF BLACK WOMEN, TRADITIONAL PEOPLES AND

COMMUNITIES, AND PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

In  light  of  this,  this  report  aims  to  a)  draw  at-

Centro de Comunicação, Democracia e Cidadania

da Universidade Federal da Bahia (Centre for

tention to the fact that inequalities in access to the

Communication, Democracy and Citizenship at the

internet  and  technologies  are  shaped  by  “colour,

Federal University of Bahia) and Intervozes – Coletivo

gender,  address  and  accessibility  needs”  and  b)

Brasil de Comunicação Social (Intervozes – Brazilian

point out the importance of digital rights networks

Social Communication Collective)

attending to the demands of these groups..

Tâmara Terso,1 Paulo Victor Melo2 and Iraildon Mota3

https://ccdcufba.wordpress.com and

“Have you ever seen them cry over the orixá’s

https://intervozes.org.br

colour?”6

On 13 May 2021, the anniversary of the day when slav-

Introduction

ery  was  abolished  in  Brazil  over  140  years  ago,  the

Brazilian Black movement protested that the effects

This  report  has  two  motivations:  the  deepening  of

of slavery had not been abolished in their entirety.7 On

inequalities in access to the internet and other infor-

the same day in Palmares, one of the main historical

mation  and  communications  technologies  (ICTs)  in

territories for  quilombos 8 in the country, the Brazilian

Brazil during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the need

president announced that the Bolsa Família financial

to look at race, gender, territory and accessibility as

aid programme,9 with some 25 million families regis-

the underlying factors of these inequalities.

tered, would end. In its place the government would

In this context, the government’s decision to dig-

make services available to the most vulnerable fami-

itise  access  to  public  services  aimed  at  vulnerable

lies exclusively through an internet platform.

groups,4 even though they are the least connected

This  decision  is  part  of  a  broader  approach

groups, is questioned. At the same time, the invisi-

which involves the platformisation of social servic-

bility of the issues that particularly affect rural Black

es in a deeply unequal country, as a way to increase

women, traditional peoples and communities,5 and

exclusion.

people with disabilities in the advocacy agendas of

Although 70% of rural households have internet

digital rights organisations is striking.

access, its quality is poor and its costs are unreason-

able. Some 84% of rural people access it exclusively

1  Tâmara Terso, an Amefrican journalist, holds a master’s degree and

through mobile phones,10 with 41.24% of the quilom-

is a doctoral candidate in the graduate programme in Communication

bola  and  rural  families  that  have  internet  access

and Contemporary Culture at the Federal University of Bahia (UFBA).

She  is  a  coordinator  of  the  Centre  for  Communication,  Democracy

spending  between  BRL  51  and  BRL  200  (between

and Citizenship at UFBA and a member of the board of directors of

USD 10 and USD 39) per month on the service – and

Intervozes – Coletivo Brasil de Comunicação Social.

56.20% have a monthly income of less than one mini-

2  Paulo Victor Melo is a professor and researcher of communication

policies. He has a PhD in Contemporary Communication and Culture

mum wage,11 whereas 16.05% have no fixed income.12

from  the  Federal  University  of  Bahia,  and  is  currently  doing  post-

doctoral  training  at  the  University  of  Beira  Interior/Portugal.  He

is  a  coordinator  of  the  Centre  for  Communication,  Democracy  and

6  From the song “Boa Esperança” by Emicida.

Citizenship at UFBA.

7  Brazil  was  the  last  country  in  the  Americas  to  officially  abolish

3  Iraildon Mota has a degree in Journalism and Public Relations from

slavery. Signed on 13 May 1888, the Lei Áurea officially ended slavery

the State University of Piauí, and a post-graduate degree in Corporate

in  the  country.  However,  the  law  did  not  guarantee  any  rights  or

Communication Management from the Federal University of Piauí. He

compensation to enslaved people and the slave mentality continues

also has an MBA in Business Management from the Getúlio Vargas

to structure political, economic, social and cultural relations in the

Foundation.  He  is  president  of  the  NGO  Comradio  do  Brasil  and  a

country, and continues to sustain inequalities.

member of Intervozes – Coletivo Brasil de Comunicação Social.

8   Quilombos are settlements formed by Black people who escaped

4  These pro-poor services had been the result of years of struggle by

repression during the period of slavery in Brazil. The current

civil society for recognition of the needs of vulnerable groups. By

inhabitants of these communities, descendants of their founders,

digitising them, the government was effectively negating this political

are called  quilombolas.

and policy struggle, and making the services unavailable to many.

9  Created in 2003, Bolsa Família was terminated on 11 August 2021.

5  Traditional peoples and communities represent a diversity of groups

present  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Some  of  their  common

10  According to a survey carried out by the Brazilian Internet Steering

characteristics  have  been  defined  as  their  intrinsic  relationship

Committee, available at: https://cetic.br/pesquisa/domicilios

with  nature,  their  relationship  with  territory,  economic-productive

11  In Brazil, the minimum wage is BRL 1,110 a month. This amount is

rationality,  interrelationships  with  other  groups  in  the  region,  and

roughly equivalent to USD 216.53.

self-identification (Dicionário da Educação do Campo, 2012).

12  http://territorioslivres.online

BRAZIL / 83

Similarly, it is alarming that less than 1% of the

populations.  While  agribusiness    received  prompt

28 million websites registered in Brazil are consid-

state  support21    and  credit  facilitation  in  public

ered to be accessible to people with disabilities.13

banks,22 the only measure to mitigate the damages

Digital  rights  initiatives  in  the  country  seem  to

of the pandemic for traditional peoples and commu-

have  difficulty  in  pointing  out  these  issues.  As  an

nities  was  vetoed  by  the  president.  Bill  1.142/20,23

indicator  of  this:  of  the  22  statements  published

which established an Emergency Plan to face COV-

by Coalizão Direitos na Rede (CDR),14 a coalition of

ID-19 in Indigenous territories and support measures

Brazilian digital rights organisations, during 2021,15

for quilombolas and traditional fishermen, was over-

none  mentioned  the  government’s  moves  to  make

turned  by  the  National  Congress  –  but  even  so,  it

social  assistance  programmes  exclusively  acces-

was still detrimental to the people, particularly due

sible  through  the  internet16  and  internet-enabled

to the withdrawal of social security measures such

applications,17  or  the  authorisation  of  tele-assess-

as food distribution.

ments,18   moves that were criticised by social service

On one hand, the rescue measures for agribusi-

organisations.

ness made it possible for the industry to expand its

activities,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  delay  in  the

“Use the voice to say what is silent”19

attention to the territories of Black populations and

The  violation  of  the  right  to  communication  con-

traditional communities resulted in an acceleration

tributes to the worsening of symbolic and material

in the loss of lives, especially of elders, who keep the

violence  against  Black  women,  traditional  peoples

ancestral knowledge of these peoples.

and communities, and people with disabilities.

It  was  in  this  context  that  the  National  Coordi-

From the invisibility of narratives and meanings

nation for the Articulation of Rural Black Quilombola

(which  Muniz  Sodré  called  “semiocide”)  to  the  de-

Communities (CONAQ) denounced the lack of infor-

nial of the contribution of African knowledge in the

mation  on  prevention  measures  against  COVID-19

construction  of  the  cultural  heritage  of  humanity,

in  quilombo  communities.  The  scarce  information

defined  by  Sueli  Carneiro  as  “epistemicide”,  there

that  was  available  –  due  to  poor  infrastructure,

is  an  alignment  of  terror  and  necropolitics.20  Some

including a lack of electricity, and low access to com-

of its most perverse expressions are the production

munication  devices  –  came  from  TV,  radio,  and  on

of poverty on a large scale, the murder of men and

messenger apps, without any monitoring by health

women who defend their traditional territory-bodies

agencies.  And  when  information  was  available,  it

against exploitative policies, the lack of accessibility

was not translated and made relevant to the ways of

policies  in  public  spaces,  and  the  political  deter-

life of the quilombos.

mination to “let them die”, a sentiment directed at

A consequence of the poor access to credible infor-

Black  people,  people  with  disabilities,  and  people

mation was the high circulation of misinformation and

from traditional peoples and communities. This has

disinformation, with consequences such as difficulties

intensified during the pandemic.

in building community trust in the efficacy of vaccines

There  were  practically  no  measures  to  mini-

against COVID-19 in some traditional territories.

mise  the  effects  of  the  health  crisis  on  vulnerable

Using  the  motto  “We  for  us”  ( Nós  por  nós)  as

being  the  only  way  to  confront  the  multiple  rights

violations  faced  by  communities,  civil  society  or-

13  Forbes. (2021, 28 July). Menos de 1% dos sites brasileiros são

considerados acessíveis, diz pesquisa. https://forbes.com.

ganisations  have  built  support  networks  such  as

br/forbesesg/2021/07/menos-de-1-dos-sites-brasileiros-sao-

“Indigenous  Emergency”  and  “Quilombo  Without

considerados-acessiveis-diz-pesquisa

COVID-19”,  coordinated  by  the  Articulation  of  In-

14  The CDR is a coalition of more than 48 organisations that work for the

defence of digital rights, with a particular focus on access, freedom of

digenous  Peoples  of  Brazil  (APIB)24  and  CONAQ25

expression, protection of personal data, and privacy on the internet.

respectively. To  help  with  prevention  efforts,  these

15  https://direitosnarede.org.br/categoria/notas

initiatives mapped cases of COVID-19 among Indig-

16  CFESS. (2021, 27 January). A defesa do Suas é essencial para a defesa

enous people and quilombolas by cross-referencing

da vida! Defender o CadÚnico é também defender o Suas! http://www.

cfess.org.br/visualizar/noticia/cod/1785

official databases and monitoring information com-

17  CFESS. (2021, 9 August). O acesso ao BPC pela população: vai ter

ing from the territories themselves.

audiência pública! http://www.cfess.org.br/visualizar/noticia/cod/1832

18  CFESS. (2021, 9 July). Teleavaliação: um retrocesso para a população

usuária e para o Serviço Social do INSS.  http://www.cfess.org.br/

21  Through the “CC-AGRO-COVID19” committee. http://www.planalto.

visualizar/noticia/cod/1824

gov.br/ccivil_03/Portaria/PRT/Portaria-37-21-mara.htm#art8

19  From the song “Minha voz” by Elza Soares.

22  PM  958  of  4/24/2020.  http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_

Ato2019-2022/2020/Mpv/mpv958.htm

20  Necropolitics  can  be  conceptualised  as  the  state’s  institutional

determination  of  how  some  people  have  the  right  to  life  and  how

23  Law 14.021/2020. http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-

others should die or are expendable through the establishment of

2022/2020/Lei/L14021.htm

mechanisms to eliminate those considered “enemies” of the state.

24  http://emergenciaindigena.apiboficial.org

Mbembe, A. (2018).  Necropolítica. N-1 Edições.

25  https://quilombosemcovid19.org

84  /  Global Information Society Watch

Black  women  and  women  from  traditional  peo-

Another  example  is  that  access  to  emergency

ples  and  communities  played  a  leading  role  in  the

financial  aid27  during  the  pandemic  was  only  avail-

initiatives, such as Elza Ursulino, a leader from the

able  via  subscription  on  a  smartphone  app  and  in

Caiana dos Crioulos quilombo community in Alagoa

Portuguese,  creating  another  socio-political  and

Grande, Paraíba. She told us the following:

economic  barrier.  An  appeal  by  the  Federal  Public

Defender’s  Office  and  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro

I am on vacation, I am a community agent, but I

Public  Defender’s  Office  to  make  the  smartphone

spent an hour on my mobile phone transmitting

application accessible to people with disabilities fell

information about the third dose of the vaccine,

on deaf ears, and Bill 3563/2020,28 which requires

which is now being offered to people over 60.

the  government  to  ensure  that  all  information  on

The lack of internet access in traditional territories

COVID-19 is also published in accessible languages,

has also impacted education. A survey by the Anísio

had not yet been passed.

Teixeira National Institute for Educational Research

A  survey  carried  out  by  the  University  of  São

reveals the severity of the situation: two million stu-

Paulo revealed that more than seven million people

dents in rural schools had no digital access26 during

who were eligible to receive the emergency aid had

2020, with the distribution of printed content being

no way to access it conveniently because they live in

the only alternative in several places.

households without internet access. Many of these

Ednalva Rita, president of the community asso-

are rural Black women and traditional peoples and

ciation of Caiana dos Crioulos, shared the reality of

communities. The result? Huge lines formed at the

education under the pandemic in rural communities:

doors of the branches of the public bank with fam-

ilies – mostly Black women – having travelled from

It  was  difficult  for  the  remote  classes  to  happen

rural  areas  to  the  cities  looking  for  information  on

here  in  the  community,  because  only  5%  of  the

how to use the application in order to receive the aid.

community has internet – we are 130 families here.

This  demonstrates  how  a  country  shaped  by

There are 187 students in the elementary school.

structural racism and ableism leads to policies that

Imagine this number of students without internet

are created from the privileged view of white people

connections to carry out online activities. So, the

and of people without disabilities.

teachers come at the beginning of the week, hand

out the materials, the students complete the print-

Conclusion

ed activities at home, and return after eight days

“I  have  neither  good  nor  bad  internet,  and  even  if

to deliver the completed activities and pick up new

I  did,  I  wouldn’t  know  how  to  participate  in  online

ones. The online classes couldn’t happen here.

meetings,” said Maria de Fátima, a shellfish gather-

All these difficulties were worsened by a government

er and fisherwoman from the quilombo community

policy of blocking proposals that aimed to minimise

of  Tororó  in  Bahia.  “When  it  comes  to  these  elec-

the problems. A change in the law of the Telecommu-

tronic things, these advanced machines, my child, I

nications Services Universalization Fund, in order to

don’t know anything: where it goes, where it comes

authorise investments in internet network expansion

from. I am sorry,” she added.   Her vent demonstrates

and guarantee the connection of all public schools in

the culpability of technopolitics in unequal environ-

the country until 2024, and Law 14.172/2020, which

ments.  It  subjects  digitally  excluded  people  to  the

provided for the transfer of BRL 3.5 billion from the

construction  of  digital  architectures  which  are  in-

federal budget to guarantee internet access in ele-

comprehensible to the diversity of ways of life.

mentary  education  schools,  were  opposed  by  the

The  digital  exclusion  of  these  communities  is

Brazilian president, both through a veto and a claim

part  of  the  same  structural  context  that  includes

in the Supreme Court, postponing the possibility of

the  absence  of  demarcating  Indigenous  and

their enforcement until 2022.

quilombola  territories,  the  political  determination

Other testimonies of the difficulties that people

of socio-environmental destruction, and the institu-

have faced when trying to participate in discussions

tional permissiveness that supports megaprojects

about  their  own  lives,  or  to  access  public  servic-

over community rights.

es,  are  emblematic  of  how  the  Brazilian  state,  by

denying the right to communication, develops nec-

27  Law  13.982/2020  allowed  financial  benefits  for  informal  workers,

ropolitical actions that consolidate colonial projects

individual microentrepreneurs, the self-employed and the unemployed

in the country.

as emergency protection during the COVID-19 crisis. Created by the

National Congress in April 2020, the aid was paid until October 2021, with

progressive reductions in amounts paid. According to a Datafolha survey,

the aid was the main or only income of 68 million Brazilians in 2020.

26  https://www.gov.br/inep/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/censo-escolar/

28  Still being processed in the House of Representatives. https://www.

divulgados-dados-sobre-impacto-da-pandemia-na-educacao

camara.leg.br/propostas-legislativas/2256479

BRAZIL / 85

How  can  one  not  relate  these  actions  to  state-

Action steps

ments  made  by  the  Brazilian  president  and  his

The  following  steps  are  necessary  to  help  shape  a

ministers,  such  as:  “I  will  not  demarcate  one

better future for marginalised communities in Brazil:

centimetre of Indigenous land”; “Children with disa-

bilities get in the way of other students”; and “I have

•  Strengthen the capacities of Black women, tradi-

been in a quilombo. The lightest African descendant

tional peoples and communities, and people with

there weighed seven arrobas”?29

disabilities in order to help them develop digital

In  this  scenario,  we  cannot  consider  the  denial

rights  initiatives  and  foster  community-driven

of access to the internet and ICTs as if it is detached

uses  of  technology,  ensuring  the  autonomy  of

from the historical violations performed by the Bra-

these groups.

zilian  state  against  the  most  vulnerable  groups.  In

•  Disaggregate race, gender, territory and disabili-

the  same  way,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  de-

ty data in digital rights surveys.35

mand for digital rights as part of the demand for the

•  Conduct  digital  rights  research  on  the

“right to exist”.

intersectional  relationships  between  communi-

This understanding informed the approach taken

cation, technologies, race, gender, territory and

by initiatives launched by communications organisa-

accessibility.

tions  and  rural  workers,  quilombola  communities,

•  Strengthen  the  participation  of  Black  wom-

fisherpeople and small farmer movements, such as

en,  traditional  peoples  and  communities,  and

the  Territórios Livres, Tecnologias Livres (Free Terri-

people with disabilities in civil society and multi-

tories, Free Technologies) project,30 and the podcast

sectoral forums and networks in order to discuss

Ondas da Resistencia (Waves of Resistance).31   One of

public  policy  on  internet  access  and  ICTs,  both

the main objectives of these initiatives is to struggle

nationally and internationally.

against  the  invisibilities  of  marginalised  communi-

ties and groups.

•  Guarantee prior and informed consultation with

These collaborations have managed to advocate

traditional  peoples  and  communities  in  public

in  national  and  international  forums  for  better  con-

policies on social assistance, education, health

nectivity policies, pushing for the self-determination

and territory, among others, as well as their par-

of communities in the implementation of internet in-

ticipation in defining and monitoring processes

frastructure  and  its  governance.  Their  participation

that lead to the digitisation and platformisation

in  the  last  two  Internet  Forums  in  Brazil32  and  in  a

of public services aimed at vulnerable groups.

preparatory event for the global Internet Governance

Forum   2021,33 the preparation of a report on these is-

sues34 to international human rights bodies, as well

as the election of a woman rural worker to the Com-

mittee for the Defence of Telecommunication Services

Users are examples of advances they have made.

29  Arroba is a term that refers to a unit of measure for weighing

animals, especially cattle.

30  http://territorioslivres.online

31  http://ondasdaresistencia.org

32  https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=bVGYM6sBeYc&ab_channel=NICbrvideos

33  https://www.intgovforum.org/multilingual/content/igf-2020-

ws-343-imagining-an-internet-that-serves-environmental-

justice#undefined

34  Intervozes. (2020, 6 October). Governo Bolsonaro promove

desinformação e acusa organizações da sociedade civil de censura

na CIDH. https://intervozes.org.br/violencia-e-divergencia-de-

opiniao-e-desinformacao-e-liberdade-de-expressao-afirma-

governo-na-cidh

35  Currently this is not common practice in Brazil.

86  /  Global Information Society Watch

BRAZIL

NEW PATHWAYS FOR ADVOCACY ON PERSONAL DATA FOLLOWING A SUPREME

COURT RULING DURING COVID-19

of  COVID-19  cases  in  Brazil  reached  tragic  levels.3

Instituto de Pesquisa em Direito e Tecnologia

do Recife (IP.rec)

Therefore,  in  order  to  minimise  the  effects  of  the

André Ramiro and Mariana Canto1

pandemic, technological solutions – often controver-

https://ip.rec.br

sial, disproportionate and unnecessary – have been

adopted  by  Brazilian  states  and  municipalities.  As

a result, we had the proliferation of dozens of con-

Introduction

tact-tracing  applications  and  other  technological

The pandemic was considered a watershed in terms

solutions that did not have any transparency regard-

of how countries view the use of surveillance tech-

ing the collection and processing of data.4

nologies  and  personal  data.  In  Brazil,  it  was  no

The justification for collecting huge amounts of

different. Amidst a variety of privacy-unfriendly solu-

personal data – that it was necessary to contain the

tions  intended  to  mitigate  the  spread  of  COVID-19

pandemic – was not an exclusive agenda of the pri-

in  the  country,  a  Presidential  Executive  Provisional

vate  sector.  MP  954/2020  instituted  by  Bolsonaro

Measure  (MP  954/2020)  mandated  Brazilian  tel-

provided  for  the  sharing  of  user  data  by  telecom-

ecom  companies  to  share  personal  data  of  more

munications  service  providers  with  the  IBGE,  “to

than 200 million users with the Brazilian Institute of

support  official  statistical  production  during  the

Geography and Statistics (IBGE, a government enti-

coronavirus pandemic.”5 The MP required telephone

ty  responsible  for  census  research)  “for  statistical

companies to provide IBGE with a list of the names,

purposes’’. The MP ended up being halted in the Bra-

telephone numbers and addresses of their custom-

zilian Supreme Court, resulting in a landmark ruling,

ers, whether individuals or legal entities. The shared

according to which data protection was considered

data,  according  to  the  text,  would  be  used  to  pro-

an autonomous fundamental right. As a result, the

duce  official  statistics  through  remote  household

ruling paved the way for the recent promulgation of

interviews.

a constitutional amendment that effectively included

It is important, however, to point out that this sit-

the fundamental right to data protection in the con-

uation is considered concerning in the context of the

stitution. Therefore, our main goal is to present how

growth of what we call “techno-authoritarianism” in

this decision has been a cornerstone for civil society

Brazil. The practice is carried out through proposals

organisations (CSOs) in their opposition to personal

and  actions  that  expand  the  access  of  the  state  to

data-related abuses. The report will show how CSOs

sensitive data of citizens without clear justification,

have been exploring the Supreme Court’s precedent

proper  guarantees,  and  safeguards.  These  include

to conduct campaigns, litigation, research and advo-

projects  such  as  the  multi-biometric  database  that

cacy work in the promotion of digital rights.2

was  the  result  of  Decree  No.  10,046  (on  creating  a

Citizen Base Register) and the various proposals to

Pandemic surveillance adds to

the techno-authoritarianism

Due to the COVID denialist movement and the lack

of  centralised  leadership  by  President  Jair  Bolson-

aro  in  relation  to  policies  aimed  at  mitigating  the

3  Simões, E. (2021, 22 June). Brazil passes half a million

pandemic, including social distancing, the numbers

COVID-19 deaths, experts warn of worse ahead.

Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/

brazil-set-pass-half-million-covid-19-deaths-2021-06-19

4  Ramiro, A., & Canto, M. (2022). Rastros Urbanos e a Covid-19:

Economia, Políticas de Vigilância e Tecnologias de Monitoramento.

In J. Reia & L. Belli (Eds.),  Smart Cities no Brasil: regulação, tecn-

1  Both directors of the Law and Technology Research Institute of

ologia e direitos. FGV Direito Rio. https://bibliotecadigital.fgv.br/

Recife (IP.rec).

dspace/bitstream/handle/10438/31403/0.%20MIOLO_Smartcities.

2  Our thanks to Bianca Kremer (Coding Rights), Bruno Bioni (Data

pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Privacy Brasil), Luã Fergus (Idec), and Veridiana Alimonti (Electronic

5  Agência Senado. (2020, 17 August). Perde eficácia MP que obrigava

Frontier Foundation) for their contributions to our research on how

operadoras a compartilhar dados com o IBGE. https://www12.

the changing interpretation of the data protection regime in Brazil has

senado.leg.br/noticias/materias/2020/08/17/perde-efica-

been or will be used by CSOs in their work to promote digital rights.

cia-mp-que-obrigava-operadoras-a-compartilhar-dados-com-o-ibge BRAZIL / 87

amend the Civil Rights Framework for the Internet.6

a  modern  general  regulation  such  as  the  Brazilian

Furthermore, in November 2021, Rio de Janeiro city

General  Data  Protection  Law  (LGPD),  problematic

councillor  Carlos  Bolsonaro  –  the  son  of  Bolsona-

areas related to the collection of personal data were

ro – began negotiations with representatives of the

left  aside,  such  as  public  security,  criminal  investi-

companies  DarkMatter,  Polus Tech  and  NSO  Group

gations and national security. As a result, the LGPD

for  the  acquisition  of  spyware  programmes  from

has  not  been  enough  to  address,  by  itself,  crucial

these companies. Also in 2021, the president’s son

problems such as biometric surveillance, access to

intervened in a tender by the Ministry of Justice in

encrypted communications, or government hacking

order  to  purchase  Pegasus  spyware.  The  attempt

activities.

failed,  however,  after  the  Federal  Audit  Court  sus-

So, the IBGE case gave the Supreme Court an op-

pended the bidding process.7

portunity to update privacy legislation and bring it in

Fortunately,  as  previously  mentioned,  the  Bra-

line with the Brazilian Federal Constitution of 1988.

zilian  Supreme  Court  decided  against  the  MP  and

With a majority of 10 votes to one,9 the decision ef-

data  sharing  with  IBGE,  recognising  –  in  a  historic

fectively revoked MP 954/2020’s effects, given that,

decision – that the protection of personal data was

among other reasons, the MP was (1) too broad and

an  autonomous  fundamental  right.  This  precedent

vague,  (2)  lacked  clarity  in  its  purpose  and,  there-

represents a major step forward in relation to prin-

fore,  (3)  failed  to  justify  the  necessity  of  the  mass

ciples that guide the protection of personal data and

data  sharing.10  It  also  did  not  provide  the  due  pro-

creates  instruments  to  combat  techno-authoritari-

cess needed to safeguard the set of data – in terms

anism, a serious threat to human and fundamental

of  technical  security  as  well  as  in  administrative

rights and inconsistent with the rule of law in Brazil.8

protocols  for  processing  the  data  –  and  it  was  not

proportional, given that the IBGE’s National House-

The origins of a new fundamental right

hold  Sample  Survey  programme  worked  literally

The federal government’s data-sharing proposal be-

with samples, making it unnecessary to gain access

tween IBGE and telecom companies tried to justify

to all the databases of telecom service providers.

itself based on the necessity to conduct interviews

The court found that the right to privacy and data

for  the  National  Household  Sample  Survey  at  the

protection – already granted in the constitution, but

height  of  the  pandemic.  The  alleged  trade-off  be-

mostly referred to as “confidential data” and privacy

tween data protection on one side – historically seen

of telecommunications – should also cover “informa-

as an individual right – and public security or pub-

tional self-determination”, adopting an autonomous

lic  health  on  the  other,  has  been  used  as  a  typical

right to data protection beyond the spheres of tele-

justification for mass surveillance and social control

communications or private data. It was argued that

around the world, diminishing collective data priva-

the right to data protection was a fundamental part

cy in the name of a “greater good”.

of the individual’s dignity and that the value of per-

It  is  essential  to  put  the  Supreme  Court’s  de-

sonal data escapes the public/private dichotomy, i.e.

cision  into  perspective:  before  the  shift  in  the

all personal data, held by public or private entities,

interpretation, the previous laws were sectorial. For

should be subjected to constitutional protection. Fi-

instance,  the  Brazilian  Consumers’  Code  protected

nally, at least two  amici curiae  were proposed within

data subjects in consumer relations; the Civil Rights

the Supreme Court case, sustaining that the auton-

Framework for the Internet protected personal data,

omous  right  to  data  protection  instrumentalised  a

mainly regarding relations with service and internet

series of other liberties, as a pillar of the collective

providers; the Statute for Children and Adolescents

social  contract,  and  therefore,  the  MP  was  highly

protected  its  specific  public,  and  so  on.  Even  with

disproportionate.11

The  shift  in  the  interpretation  in  the  judi-

6  Coalizão Direitos na Rede. (2019, 16 October). Nota

cial  branch  paved  the  way  to  the  Constitutional

da Coalizão Direitos na Rede sobre o Decreto nº

10.046/2019. https://direitosnarede.org.br/2019/10/16/

nota-da-coalizao-direitos-na-rede-sobre-o-decreto-no-100462019/

9  Poder 360 (2020, 7 May). STF derruba MP que compartilhava dados

7  Business and Human Rights Resource Centre. (2021, 8 June). Brazil:

telefônicos  com  IBGE.  https://www.poder360.com.br/justica/

Million-dollar negotiation for the Pegasus espionage programme,

stf-forma-maioria-para-suspender-mp-que-compartilha-dados-

developed by the NSO Group, excluded official government inves-

telefonicos-com-ibge

tigation bodies that would directly benefit from the tool. https://

10  The World  Health  Organization’s  International  Health  Regulations

www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/brazil-million-dol-

(2005), adopted by Brazil, also prevent unnecessary personal data

lar-negotiation-for-the-pegasus-espionage-programme-devel-from being processed beyond the minimum necessary to address a

oped-by-the-nso-group-excluded-official-government-investiga-

risk to public health.

tion-bodies-that-would-directly-benefit-from-the-tool

11  Namely, the Research Association Data Privacy Brasil (see: https://

8  Coalizão Direitos na Rede. (2021, 19 August). #16

www.dataprivacybr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/dpbrr_rotei-

Tecnoautoritarismo (podcast). https://direitosnarede.org.br/

ro_sustentacao_stf_english_final.pdf) and the Laboratory of Public

podcast/16-tecnoautoritarismo

Policy and Internet (LAPIN), both Brazilian organisations.

88  /  Global Information Society Watch

Amendment No. 115/2022, recently enacted by the

for civil society to engage in judicial actions as  amici

Brazilian Senate,12 and effectively elevating the right

curiae  and  to  mobilise  public  opinion  when  land-

to data protection to the Brazilian Federal Constitu-

mark  data  protection  cases  are  being  heard  at  the

tion (Article 5º, LXXIX).

Supreme Court.

According  to  civil  society  representatives,  ac-

Cases at the centre of the digital rights debate in

tivists  and  policy  analysts,  this  opened  an  avenue

Brazil will also be directly affected by the new con-

to strengthen digital rights in Brazil. As mentioned

stitutional  landscape,  such  as  the  massive  federal

before, the previous data protection framework had

data-sharing programmes. In 2019, the Citizen’s Ba-

limitations  that  left  crucial  advocacy  work  without

sic Register ( Cadastro Base do Cidadão) was created

concrete  solutions,  such  as  in  the  areas  of  public

by presidential decree, and has been referred to as

security and criminal investigations, as well as loop-

a  massive  “data  collection  and  surveillance  infra-

holes  allowing  abusive  surveillance  programmes.

structure”.14  According  to  the  programme,  multiple

However,  now,  with  the  change  in  the  legal  land-

biographic,  social  and  other  sensitive  citizen  data

scape,  civil  society  organisations  could  count  on  a

(including  biometrics  of  the  palm,  retina,  face  and

powerful advocacy tool.

voice,  as  well  as  gait  recognition)  is  being  shared

among public entities “in order to improve the offer-

The dawn of a new front in digital rights

ing of public services.” Another case is the sharing

advocacy

of Brazilians’ driver’s licence numbers between the

Protected  by  the  constitution,  safeguarding  per-

Federal Data Processing Service and the Brazilian In-

sonal  data  is  now  a  government  obligation  at  the

telligence Agency, the central domestic surveillance

national  and  local  levels.  The  government  needs

entity  in  the  country.15  As  these  programmes  have

to  proactively  ensure  the  protection  of  personal

not proven necessary and proportionate, they have

data for the entire population, not only by avoiding

been challenged at the Supreme Court16 – and now

unauthorised use of citizens’ data, but also by pro-

these challenges have gained a new context that fa-

moting institutional means to continuously improve

vours them based on the fundamental right to data

the protection of personal data. This includes edu-

protection.

cation of the public, the empowerment of oversight

Equally urgent is the resolution of data protection

and  ombudsperson’s  entities  such  as  data  protec-

parameters  regarding  private  messaging  services.

tion  authorities,13  public  campaigns,  and  a  broad

Since 2020, for instance, traceability provisions for

range of incentives that promote data protection in

the mass sharing of private communications within

the processing of public and private personal data.

end-to-end encrypted platforms are seen as a pos-

At the same time, the public sector can also be held

sible solution to the dissemination of disinformation

accountable for any collective damage to Brazilians

in Brazil (through Bill No. 2630/20, the “Fake News

regarding personal data abuse.

Law”). Although facing strong opposition from digi-

At first, civil society might benefit from this sce-

tal rights groups,17 the measure is perceived by some

nario by demanding, for instance, that public actors

as  “justified”  as  it  would  be  used  in  prosecution,

reveal  the  amount  of  public  resources  spent  in  a

which is considered a loophole in the prior legal re-

specific  year  regarding  the  protection  of  citizens’

gime. Now that this enforcement would be subject to

personal  data,  as  well  as  how  the  resources  were

the constitutional right to data protection, and con-

spent,  and  who  any  monies  were  paid  to. This  will

sidering  that  the  proposed  legislation  violates  the

be very valuable in helping to understand the extent

“necessity” principle in data protection guidelines –

to which it has been a priority agenda. Additionally,

according to which only the minimum of data should

with the new fundamental right status, data protec-

tion can be the basis for judicial actions filed directly

14  Kemeny, R. (2020, 19 August). Brazil is sliding into tech-

to  the  Supreme  Court  –  for  instance,  through  Re-

no-authoritarianism.  MIT Technology Review. https://

quest for Non-Compliance with Basic Constitutional

www.technologyreview.com/2020/08/19/1007094/

brazil-bolsonaro-data-privacy-cadastro-base

Principles  and  Direct  Action  of  Unconstitutionality

15  Dias,  T.,  &  Martins,  R.  M.  (2020,  6  June).  Documentos  vazados

actions,  whose  decisions  have  binding  effects  na-

mostram que Abin pediu ao Serpro dados e fotos de todas as CNHs

tionwide.  These  are  considered  key  opportunities

do país.  The Intercept Brasil. https://theintercept.com/2020/06/06/

abin-carteira-motorista-serpro-vigilancia

16  Carneiro, L. O. (2020, 16 June). PSB aciona STF contra compartilha-

mento de dados da CNH entre Serpro e Abin.  JOTA. https://www.

12  Autoridade Nacional de Proteção de Dados. (2022, 10 Febru-

jota.info/stf/do-supremo/psb-aciona-stf-contra-compartilhamento-

ary). Proteção de Dados Pessoais agora é um direito funda-

de-dados-da-cnh-entre-serpro-e-abin-16062020

mental.  Governo do Brasil. https://www.gov.br/anpd/pt-br/

17  Ramiro, A., Saraiva, R., & Fernandes, A. (2021, 15 September).

protecao-de-dados-pessoais-agora-e-um-direito-fundamental

Os novos mitos da eficácia da rastreabilidade contra a

13  In  Brazil,  the  National  Data  Protection  Authority  (ANPD)  was

desinformação.  ConJur. https://www.conjur.com.br/2021-set-15/

established just recently, in 2020.

opiniao-novos-mitos-rastreabilidade-desinformacao

BRAZIL / 89

be processed – civil society organisations will have a

protection system by regulating limits and permis-

stronger base for conducting advocacy and litigation

sions on the processing of personal data within the

against  message  monitoring  of  this  nature  and  for

field of law enforcement.23 Although it did not gain

protecting end-to-end encryption in general.18

much traction last year, the shift in the legal frame-

In the field of criminal prosecution and investi-

work  creates  a  pathway  for  civil  society  advocacy

gation, the Brazilian Congress has been discussing

pushing for the enactment of the law in the Brazil-

the Reform of the Criminal Procedures Code, which

ian Congress.

has  introduced,  in  its  first  draft,  broad  author-

isations  to  law  enforcement  to  use  remote  and

Conclusion

on-device  hacking  technologies,  including  brute

It  seems  that  the  Supreme  Court’s  decision  intro-

force tools to exploit digital security and spyware.

duced not only a new fundamental right but a new

Beyond  the  legislative  debate,  the  providers  of

interpretation regarding the importance of the right

hacking  tools  –  such  as  Cellebrite19  and Verint20  –

to privacy and data protection for Brazilian citizens.

have  a  very  close  relationship  with  Brazilian  law

The right to data protection is no longer just an indi-

enforcement.  As  mentioned,  most  recently,  it  was

vidual right, related to the use and collection of data

also disclosed that the son of President Jair Bolson-

– on the contrary, it has become a matter related to

aro,  Carlos  Bolsonaro,  tried  to  purchase  hacking

collective  and  social  well-being,  along  with  human

tools from companies such as the NSO Group and

dignity. Although we still need specific laws for the

DarkMatter21 in order to surveil political opponents.

use of certain technologies for law enforcement pur-

Furthermore, the government’s acquisition of soft-

poses,  the  recognition  of  the  fundamental  right  is

ware  that  does  broad  data  gathering  from  open

essential for the prevention of abusive surveillance

sources (also known as “open-source intelligence”

measures within the scope of public safety, such as

or OSINT) is being reported and questioned by civ-

the  use  of  mass  surveillance  for  political  persecu-

il  society  organisations  for  the  lack  of  clarity  and

tion, as well as the use of specific technologies such

legality  in  its  uses,  as  well  as  its  threat  to  demo-

as  facial  recognition  and  tools  used  to  bypass  the

cratic values in the country.22 Due to the potential

security of encrypted devices and services. As stat-

of these tools to be extremely invasive to individu-

ed by some of the people interviewed for this report,

als, the government’s predilection for surveillance

with the approval of the constitutional amendment,

can  be  challenged  on  constitutional  grounds  and

the judicial branch has become a lifeline in a Brazil

should be overseen by data protection authorities

that is currently subject to a less progressive legis-

and digital rights organisations.

lature and an institutionally weak and authoritarian

This demonstrates the need to bring the disci-

administration.

pline of data protection closer to the practice of law

Moreover,  this  new  fundamental  right  along-

enforcement  in  Brazil.  Not  coincidentally,  in  2021

side  existing  data  protection  legislation  creates

the  Draft  Bill  on  Data  Protection  Law  for  Criminal

an  important  cornerstone  for  demanding  greater

Investigation  and  Public  Security  (the  “LGPD  Pe-

transparency  and  mechanisms  for  evaluating  and

nal Law”) was introduced, building a specific data

monitoring  the  processing  of  data  by  public  and

private  agents.  It  can  also  be  said  that  there  is  a

great  “revisional  movement”  in  relation  to  certain

previously approved abusive and invasive laws from

18  Aleixo, G., et al. (2019, 30 May). The Encryption Debate in Brazil.

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieen-

a privacy perspective. From now on, civil society is

dowment.org/2019/05/30/encryption-debate-in-brazil-pub-79219

able  to  use  this  precedent  in  order  to  consolidate

19  Ventura, F. (2021, 8 April). Polícia usa Cellebrite para resgatar pro-

legal grounds so that they can be used in strategic

vas apagadas de celular no caso Henry Borel.  Tecnoblog. https://

tecnoblog.net/noticias/2021/04/08/policia-usa-cellebrite-para-res-

litigation  actions.  Therefore,  it  will  be  possible  to

gatar-provas-apagadas-de-celular-no-caso-henry-borel

challenge data protection-unfriendly laws that need

20  Braga, A. (2020, 3 October). Governo do AM comprou o mesmo

to be re-evaluated now and possibly declared as un-

equipamento de espionagem israelense apreendido pela PF no

Pará.  D24am. https://d24am.com/artigos/alex-braga/gover-

constitutional since they violate a fundamental right

no-do-am-comprou-o-mesmo-equipamento-de-espionagem-is-

granted in our constitution.

raelense-apreendido-pela-pf-no-para

Because of this, we are witnessing a change that

21  Chade, J., & Valença, L. (2021, 18 January). Cobiçado pelo ‘gabinete

do ódio’, sistema DarkMatter é usado por ditaduras.  UOL Notícias.

seems very promising. The possibility that organised

https://noticias.uol.com.br/politica/ultimas-noticias/2022/01/18/

darkmatter-foi-usado-para-investigar-jornalista-saudita-morto-em-

consulado.htm

22  Conectas. (2021, 9 August). Entidades questionam no TCU

23  Consultor Jurídico. (2020, 31 October). Anteproje-

contratação de software de espionagem. https://www.conectas.

to de lei disciplina proteção de dados em investigações

org/noticias/entidades-questionam-no-tcu-contratacao-de-

criminais. https://www.conjur.com.br/2020-out-31/

software-de-espionagem

anteprojeto-disciplina-protecao-dados-investigacoes-criminais

90  /  Global Information Society Watch

civil  society  can  demand  a  greater  commitment  by

•  Campaigns  and  other  initiatives  can  be  carried

the state in terms of its duties and the protection of

out by civil society in the field of public securi-

citizens is a light at the end of a presently frightful

ty,  criminal  prosecution  and  national  defence

moment in Brazil.

based on this new fundamental right, including

creating pressure for more detailed and specific

Action steps

regulations.

The following actions are necessary in Brazil:

•  Civil  society  must  be  attentive,  always  seeking

•  Civil  cociety  should  invest  in  creating  a  move-

“strategic litigation” – i.e. assisting public pros-

ment for the “constitutionalisation” of demands

ecutors in collective actions and/or participating

on  data  protection,  i.e.  actions  aimed  at  ques-

in judicial processes of public interest as  amicus

tioning, based on the fundamental right of data

curiae – because otherwise, Brazilian courts can

protection,  the  constitutionality  of  certain  poli-

endorse  negative  practices  and  give  them  an

cies and laws.

even greater degree of legitimacy.

•  Problems related to obtaining user consent and

current abusive data-sharing practices between

government agencies and private entities should

be brought to light, as a way of promoting trans-

parency and accountability in the government’s

obligation to protect citizens’ data.

BRAZIL / 91

CAMEROON

THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND ACCESS TO EDUCATION IN CAMEROON

PROTEGE QV

e-working, information sharing and online studies.

Serge Daho, Avis Momeni and Emmanuel Bikobo

However, internet usage in Cameroon is hindered

www.protegeqv.org

by  limited  internet  access,4  costly  internet  data,

poor  connectivity,  underserved  rural  areas  and

poor internet speeds.

Introduction

According to the Inclusive Internet Index 2020,5

Cameroon is a lower-middle-income country located

the country was ranked 102nd overall out of the 105

in the West Central African region, and is bordered

countries  assessed  (and  tied  for  13th  place  among

by six countries including Chad, Nigeria and Gabon.

30 Sub-Saharan African countries). This means that

Faced with the outbreak of the coronavirus pan-

the  increased  use  of  the  internet  in  areas  such  as

demic, the government of this country of more than

education or for distance work as advocated by the

25 million inhabitants1 spread over 475,000 square

public authorities was not possible for most.

kilometres  implemented  several  measures  to  con-

tain the virus. These included social distancing and

Accessing the internet: An uphill task for

the  use  of  electronic  communications  and  digital

many Cameroonians during COVID-19

tools for education and distance learning. This, to-

According to the African Declaration on Internet Rights

gether with e-working, lead to an increase in the use

and  Freedoms,  “Access  to  the  internet  should  be

of  information  and  communications  technologies

available and affordable to all persons in Africa with-

(ICTs) in the country.

out discrimination on any ground.”6 The government’s

In  the  context  of  a  surge  in  demand  for  the  in-

efforts in Cameroon to curb the COVID-19 pandemic

ternet,  this  report  discusses  how  a  reliance  on  the

created a range of knock-on consequences for the ICT

internet impacted the right to education in Cameroon

sector, and its infrastructures and services, as access

during the pandemic. It also suggests recommenda-

to the internet became both a key channel for author-

tions to help civil society use the internet effectively,

ities  seeking  to  manage  the  crisis,  and  for  citizens

and to advocate for digital rights.

seeking to accommodate its exigencies.7

There  are  legal  provisions  relating  to  the  right

Background

to  access  electronic  communications,  notably  Law

Cameroon, like many states in the world, was not

spared  by  the  COVID-19  pandemic.  In  the  face  of

what  then  appeared  to  be  a  global  health  crisis,

4  “In January 2020, 7.8 million people were connected to the internet

in Cameroon, according to a report published by Hootsuite and

the  government  adopted  13  measures  to  prevent

We Are Social, two organisations that monitor internet and social

the  spread  of  the  virus  in  the  country,  which  en-

media feed. With that number of users, the internet penetration

tered into effect on 18 March 2020.2 Later on, five

rate reached 30% in the country in January 2020.” Business in

Cameroon. (2020, 24 February). Cameroon: Internet penetration

additional  measures  still  aimed  at  curbing  the

rate up 30% YoY in Jan 2020, with the addition of 570,000 news

pandemic  were  taken  by  the  government.3 These

users. https://www.businessincameroon.com/economy/2402-

10003-cameroon-internet-penetration-rate-up-30-yoy-in-jan-2020-

governmental  actions  ranged  from  the  closure  of

with-the-addition-of-570-000-news-users

all  public  and  private  school  facilities  from  nurs-

5  The Inclusive Internet Index, commissioned by Facebook and

ery  to  higher  education,  to  the  prohibition  of

developed by The Economist Intelligence Unit, seeks to measure the

extent to which the internet is not only accessible and affordable,

gatherings of more than 50 people. The measures

but also relevant to all, allowing usage that enables positive social

changed  people’s  lifestyles  deeply,  and  rapidly

and economic outcomes at the individual and group level. https://

increased  internet  usage  for  social  interaction,

theinclusiveinternet.eiu.com/explore/countries/performance/

overall?highlighted=CM&year=2020

6  The African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms is a Pan-

African initiative to promote human rights standards and principles

1  https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/cameroon/overview#1

of openness in internet policy formulation and implementation

2  https://www.spm.gov.cm/site/?q=en/content/

on the continent. For more information, see: https://

government-response-strategy-coronavirus-pandemic-covid-19

africaninternetrights.org/en/declaration

3  Emmanuel. (2020, 13 April). Fight against coronavirus:

7  Lewis, C. (2020). Digital divisions: COVID-19 policy and practice and

Government takes additional measures.  Cameroon Tribune.

the digital divide in Africa. In African Declaration on Internet Rights

https://www.cameroon-tribune.cm/article.html/31736/en.html/

and Freedoms Coalition,  The impact of COVID-19 on digital rights in

fight-against-coronavirus-government-takes

Africa. https://africaninternetrights.org/en/node/2553

92  /  Global Information Society Watch

N°2010/013  of  21  December  2010  governing  elec-

E-learning as a display of Cameroon’s

tronic communications, which states in its article 4

unpreparedness to face one of the COVID-19

that  “everyone has the right to benefit from electron-

consequences

ic communications services, irrespective of his or her

geographical location within the national territory.”

To ward off the spectre of a “blank year” and to ensure

Further on, article 28 (para 1) requires “Cameroon’s

the continuity of education in Cameroon, the govern-

telecommunications operators to provide communi-

ment  responded  to  the  pandemic  by  implementing

cations services of good quality, at affordable rates

various  distance-learning  programmes  on  radio,  tel-

and in an uninterrupted manner.”

evision and using the internet. With regard to primary

Moreover,  Law  N°2015/006  of  20  April  2015

schools, a solution called  “l’école à la télé”  (school

amending and supplementing certain provisions of

on TV)  was  launched  by  the  Ministries  of  Basic  Ed-

Law  N°2010/013  of  21  December  2010  establishes

ucation  and  Secondary  Education  with  CRTV,  the

the  Universal  Service  Access  Fund  (in  section  34),

state-owned  radio  and  television  broadcaster,  as  a

whose resources are intended  inter alia for “the de-

technical partner. This distance-learning programme

velopment of electronic communications throughout

ran from 6 April 2020 until 31 May 2020, with cours-

the national territory.”   The ultimate aim of the Fund

es broadcast on TV in both French and English. This

is to ensure equal, good-quality and affordable ac-

helped to ease learning from home for more than 7.2

cess to services.

million pupils and students affected by the closure of

However, a survey commissioned by the Alliance

schools and universities due to the pandemic.13

for  Affordable  Internet

At the higher education level, the minister remind-

8  in  2014  ranked  Cameroon

40th  out  of  46  emerging  and  developing  nations

ed the heads of public and private universities, during

surveyed in terms of internet access costs, with an

a meeting held on 20 March 2020,14 of the urgency of

overall score of 17.1 (out of a possible 100). At that

an  appropriate  and  concerted  response  so  that  the

time, the country’s failure to launch an internet ex-

academic year could be continued. Among the meas-

change point (IXP) and its failure to use the WACS

ures  adopted  were  the  use  of  institutional  digital

and ACE

platforms that were already accessible to students for

9 submarine cables were blamed.10

To  date,  the  same  is  true:  the  cost  of  internet

online teaching and the use of social networks.

access,  as  evidenced  by  a  recent  study  commis-

Reactions  from  students,  teachers  and  educa-

sioned by Facebook,

tion stakeholders pointed to a lack of preparedness

11 is still high despite the head

of  state’s  commitment  when  he  said  in  2015  that

and  readiness  among  all  stakeholders,  including

his  government  would  give  the  ICT  sector  “all  the

the government and private education providers, as

attention it deserves.”

well as the students themselves. Teachers and staff

12

Notwithstanding  incentives  for  widespread

interviewed  pointed  to  a  lack  of  computer  knowl-

access  to  internet  services,  both  access  to  and  af-

edge and training opportunities as a setback to an

fordability  of  the  internet  remain  a  real  challenge

effective COVID-19 digital learning response.15 Most

in Cameroon for poor communities in rural areas as

teachers lacked the necessary skills, and needed to

well as in some disadvantaged urban areas. This was

be trained in e-learning and on the use digital learn-

particularly  the  case  during  the  coronavirus  pan-

ing systems. In most schools in the country, the only

demic, hampering a shift to e-learning, even though

teachers  who  can  boast  knowledge  in  using  ICTs

this was a government-led initiative.

are  computer  science  teachers  and  other  teachers

who teach technical subjects.16 The same applies to

13  Actu Cameroun. (2020, 23 April). Cameroun/E-learning : la difficile

épreuve de l’enseignement à distance. https://actucameroun.

com/2020/04/23/cameroun-e-learning-la-difficile-epreuve-de-

8  https://a4ai.org

lenseignement-a-distance

9  The West Africa Cable System (WACS) is a submarine

14  Siyam, S., Momeni, A., Daho, S., Amahata, L., & Bikobo, E. (2020).

communications cable linking South Africa with the United Kingdom

Le respect des droits numériques dans le contexte de la COVID 19

along the west coast of Africa, while the Africa Coast to Europe

au Cameroun.  African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms

(ACE) optical fibre submarine cable system serves 24 countries on

Coalition. https://www.apc.org/sites/default/files/Rapport-de-

the west coast of Africa and Europe. See: https://en.wikipedia.org/

recherche_Respect-des-droits-numeriques.pdf

wiki/West_Africa_Cable_System and https://en.wikipedia.org/

15  Ajebe Akame, G., Bates Anoma, R. A., & Crockett, J. (2021).

wiki/Africa_Coast_to_Europe_(cable_system)

Cameroon’s COVID-19 Pandemic Education Response and the

10  Owono, J., & Blanc, F. (2014).  Internet and broadband in Cameroon:

Shift to Distance/Digital Learning.  Solidarity and Development

Barriers to affordable access.  Alliance for Affordable Internet.

Initiative. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/

https://a4ai.org/a4ai-releases-cameroon-case-study

Cameroon%E2%80%99s%20COVID-19%20pandemic%20

11  Ibid.

education%20response%20and%20the%20shift%20to%20

12  Excerpt from the Head of State’s Message to the Nation, 31

distance-digital%20learning%2C%20November%202021.pdf

December 2015. https://www.prc.cm/en/news/speeches-of-the-

16  Siyam, S., Momeni, A., Daho, S., Amahata, L., & Bikobo, E. (2020).

president/1612-head-of-state-s-message-to-the-nation

Op. cit.

CAMEROON / 93

students,  with  many  unable  to  use  a  computer,  let

Action steps

alone meeting the challenge of providing them with

The  pandemic  has  exposed  barriers  to  internet  ac-

the necessary devices for distance learning.

cess  in  Cameroon  (poor  infrastructures,  constant

Alongside  this,  internet  services  are  not  even-

power  failures,  high  data  costs,  lack  of  adequate

ly  distributed  throughout  the  country,  a  problem

access  devices,  etc.).  While  these  barriers  existed

compounded by multiple power failures and limited

before,  the  pandemic  has  demonstrated  the  direct

access to electricity. Similarly, even the CRTV signal

consequences  of  the  lack  of  access,  particularly  in

is  not  available  throughout  the  national  territory,

the  education  sector.  This  has  potentially  compro-

meaning  that  some  pupils  without  internet  access

mised the right to education for many citizens.

could  not  even  benefit  from  the   l’école  à  la  télé

To allow civil society organisations to efficiently

initiative.17

address this issue, in the context of a growing num-

Conclusion

ber  of  people  moving  online,  the  following  action

steps are recommended:

The COVID-19 pandemic has sounded a wake-up call

on  how  critical  internet  access  has  become  to  our

•  Civil  society  organisations  should  collaborate,

daily lives. With social distancing measures in force

share their skills and upskill in order to be more

across the world at the time of writing, we are now

efficient  online  and  reach  both  a  local  and  in-

living online (to keep in touch with our families and

ternational audience. Voices are more powerful

friends, to work or learn from home).

when they are put together.

Through  measures  limiting  physical  contact,

•  Investigate  better  ways  to  campaign  on-

the  government  has  opened  up  the  road  to  the

line,  including  by  learning  about  successful

widespread take-up of ICTs. This has resulted in nu-

cases  elsewhere  in  the  world.  For  example,  or-

merous actors in the private and non-profit sectors

ganisations could use a “smart switch” to reach

setting  up  initiatives  using  the  internet  for  online

intended  audiences  through  online  campaigns

learning, online work and citizen training.

simply by using a hashtag.18 Online petitions as

Unfortunately, physical isolation has starkly ex-

well  as  crowdsourced  social  media  campaigns

posed the digital divide across the national territory.

would also be effective. However, the possibili-

People in poorer areas of the country and those in

ties and limitations of these sorts of campaigning

remote and rural areas were not able to get online.

tools need to be understood.

This  inequality  had  many  consequences.  For  in-

•  Humanise  digital  communications  as  much  as

stance,  without  internet  access  or  computers,  and

possible  for  online  events.  The  message  is  as

most  of  the  time  without  electricity,  many  citizens

powerful as the messenger.19

fell behind in their education.

•  Build the capacities of both civil society organi-

The  COVID-19  pandemic  has  shown  how  citi-

sations and citizens on cybersecurity issues and

zens become vulnerable when governments do not

on the use of personal data.

protect and promote human rights in the online en-

vironment.  Since  many  have  turned  to  the  internet

•  Inform citizens of their rights online and develop

to reach out, the issue of digital rights has become

the  necessary  capacity  to  protect  and  promote

foregrounded.  This  is  exacerbated  by  the  fact  that

these rights.

during  the  pandemic,  civil  society  has  faced  sever-

al constraints on its ability to carry out its work as

a  result  of  lockdowns,  distancing  and  quarantine

measures.

17  Journal du Cameroun (2014, 19 March). Le signal

18  Bowater, D. (2020, 23 March). How to advocate effectively in

de la CRTV disponible dans deux localités de

the age of COVID-19.  Devex. https://www.devex.com/news/

l’Est. https://www.journalducameroun.com/

opinion-how-to-advocate-effectively-in-the-age-of-covid-19-96812

le-signal-de-la-crtv-disponible-dans-deux-localites-de-lest

19  Ibid.

94  /  Global Information Society Watch

CANADA

THE NEED FOR A BROAD-BASED DIGITAL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

IN CANADA

Mass surveillance

eQualitie

Michel Lambert

In December 2021, the Canadian public health agency

https://equalit.ie

admitted to having tracked 33 million mobile devices

during the lockdown that year. To do so, they award-

ed a contract to the Telus Data for Good programme,1

Introduction

a  programme  launched  by  the  Telus  telecommuni-

On 8 February 2022, almost two years into the pan-

cations  company,  claiming  to  help  “solve  pressing

demic,  two  important  political  events  happened  in

societal  issues  in  ways  that  preserve  privacy  and

Canada. For the first time, a member of the federal

build trust.” The irony of that situation has made the

parliament, Joel Lightbound, who is also from Prime

public realise that there are few regulations that act

Minister  Justin  Trudeau’s  Liberal  Party  of  Canada,

as  safeguards  in  protecting  privacy  in  Canada.  As  a

spoke  out  publicly  on  the  government’s  COVID-19

result,  local  NGOs  have  started  to  request  that  the

policies, saying they had become “politicised” and

government  introduce  new  laws  that  would  create

“divisive”. His political future was at stake for a few

rules around how public bodies report on the collec-

weeks.

tion  and  use  of  sensitive  personal  information,  and

The  same  day,  as  infection  rates  from  the  fifth

provide  oversight  from  an  independent  third  party,

wave appeared to be declining in his province, the

like the Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada.

premier  of Quebec, François Legault, declared that

most restrictions would be removed within the fol-

New laws to control Canadians – and no law to

lowing  month.  However,  two  major  policies  would

protect them

remain in effect: the vaccine passport – an applica-

At  the  federal  level,  while  disinformation  and  mis-

tion on mobile phones necessary for every individual

information existed before COVID-19, the pandemic

to have access to stores and services – and the state

has  spawned  two  ambitious  and  very  dangerous

of  emergency  which  allows  the  government  to  run

draft laws looking at controlling what is accessible

affairs without using the usual political institutions.

to Canadians over the internet from almost all online

These two separate events demonstrate how the

services, as well as controlling what Canadians pub-

federal and provincial governments have kept tight

lish online.

control over the management and messaging of the

In  November  2020,  the  government  introduced

COVID-19 pandemic, and wish to carry on doing so,

Bill C-10, followed in June 2021 by Bill C-36.

including  by  disallowing  debates  on  their  policies

Bill  C-10,  called  the   “ censorship  bill”  by  many ,

and stifling any divergent viewpoints.

was initially presented as a way of generating new

taxes  for  streaming  services.  It  was  rapidly  sent

Signs that the government wants more control

to  the  senate  after  a  gag  order  was  placed  on  the

Vaccine passports

committee  studying  it.  Instead  of  simply  taxing

In Quebec, where 81% of the population has received

streaming services, critics found that the bill would

two  vaccines  already,  and  where  this  rate  is  still

amend  the  Canadian  Broadcasting  Act  and  grant

growing  daily,  insisting  on  the  vaccine  passport  is

utterly  inappropriate  power  to  one  institution,  the

inexplicable other than by the government’s interest

Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications

in continuing to track people. The Quebec National

Commission (CRTC). It would have the power to de-

Institute for Public Health in Quebec ( Institut nation-

cide  which  audiovisual  content  is  available  on  the

al de santé publique du Québec) has even recently

internet. The bill’s adoption was delayed because of

admitted that they have no proof of the efficiency of

the  Canadian  elections  in  September  2021.  It  was,

the  passport.  Many  technical  weaknesses  with  the

however, reintroduced as Bill C-11 in February 2022.

passport application have also been exposed. As of

Despite government promises of a less aggres-

January 2022, more than 150 investigations into fake

sive version, the second version of the bill still gives

passports  were  opened,  with  guilty  people  facing

fraud charges and up to five years in prison.

1  https://www.telus.com/en/about/privacy/data-for-good

CANADA / 95

a limitless reach to the CRTC’s jurisdictional power

As  governments  are  managing  the  pandemic

over audiovisual services on the internet. An internal

outside  of  the  normal  institutions  and  parameters,

memo from the government2 identified a wide range

political  parties  have  been  reduced  to  observers,

of  sites  and  services,  including  video  streaming,

hardly  criticising  the  footnotes  from  government

podcast apps, audiobooks, home workout apps and

policies that are introduced.

adult and sport websites potentially covered by the

Maybe  most  of  all,  civil  society  organisations

legislation. Michael Geist, a well-known researcher

have slowly slipped into a state of dormancy – a kind

from the University of Ottawa, believes that this may

of long COVID. As many of the global campaigns and

result in many services choosing to block the Cana-

movements  –  against  climate  change,  racism,  gen-

dian market3 entirely.

der-based violence, war and others – were suddenly

Bill  C-36  was  presented  in  June  2021  to  fight

paused due to the pandemic, many local organisa-

online hate speech. It would have amended the Ca-

tions  lost  contact  with  a  global  perspective.  They

nadian Criminal Code, the Youth Criminal Justice Act

were trapped into managing immediate difficulties,

and the Canadian Human Rights Act to allow individ-

including  financial  difficulties,  and  were  struggling

uals  or  groups  to  file  hate  speech  complaints  with

to maintain democratic structures online and to re-

the  Canadian  Human  Rights  Commission.  Critics

flect and act on pressing political issues. Added to

said it was fraught with problems and risked ham-

this is the absence of a substantial, critical and alter-

pering freedom of speech on top of being difficult to

native vision that is not aligned with the idea that the

enforce.

virus is a conspiracy and that it does not exist. Civil

Between July and September 2021, the Canadi-

society  had  its TINA5  –  or  “there  is  no  alternative”

an Heritage Ministry consulted interested parties on

– moment. This has resulted in a real inability to de-

the proposed bill. While the majority of respondents

bate alternative political perspectives from a factual

consulted  during  this  process  confirmed  the  need

point of view, and to create alternative, meaningful

to take action on the problem of hate speech, they

strategies that safeguard human rights.

also identified several overarching concerns, includ-

ing those related to freedom of expression, privacy

The future of digital rights advocacy

rights, the impact of the proposal on certain margin-

Canadian  digital  rights  advocacy  can  be  defined  in

alised  groups,  and  compliance  with  the  Canadian

many  ways,  but  in  particular  by  the  obvious  char-

Charter of Rights and Freedoms.4

acteristic  that  there  are  far  fewer  actors  in  the

actual  movement  than  the  number  of  people  and

Civil society has caught “long COVID”

organisations  that  really  should  be  concerned  by

These threats to civil freedoms coming from the na-

the  development  of  such  a  broad-scope  tool  as  the

tional  and  provincial  level  have  seriously  affected

internet. This might be explained by the fact that the

political life in Canada, and particularly in provinces

Canadian  Internet  Governance  Forum  (IGF)  process

like Quebec. Mainstream media have completely ab-

is very young (it was first funded in 2019) and frag-

dicated their role of being a watchdog to power, and

mented (a Quebec Provincial IGF also exists, but the

have reduced themselves to just being transmission

two processes are still not formally connected), and

channels for government decisions on the pandem-

possibly by a certain conviction held by many that the

ic. Journalists who dared to question those policies

internet in Canada is “safe and secure”, here to stay,

were fired. The most recent example is Francine Pel-

relatively easy to access, and somehow self-managed.

letier,  a  well-known  journalist  from  the  newspaper

In  comparison  to  other  human  rights  movements  in

Le Devoir in Montreal who dared to write an article

Canada, digital rights organisations can be quite spe-

questioning  the  government’s  policy  of  prioritising

cialised, not always successfully connecting with the

vaccination  over  other  possible  interventions  in  its

“offline” rights movements or any other civil society

strategy  for  combatting  the  virus  in  January  2022.

group concerned about the internet.

She was fired a week later.

It is also fair to say that the digital rights organisa-

tions could be better connected to each other, learn

more  from  each  others’  work,  and  cooperate  more

2  https://fr.scribd.com/document/508665790/A-2020-00498-

on  campaigns.  While  Canadian  community-based

Heritage-c10-Digital-Exclusion

3  Geist, M. (2022, 9 February). Bill C-11’s Foundational Faults, Part

campaigns working on many issues are often feder-

One: The Nearly Unlimited Global Reach of CRTC Jurisdiction

ated in associations, giving weight to their advocacy,

Over Internet Audio-Visual Services. https://www.michaelgeist.

ca/2022/02/bill-c-11s-foundational-faults-part-one-the-nearly-

unlimited-global-reach-of-crtc-jurisdiction-over-internet-audio-

5  TINA was a slogan often used by the Conservative British prime

visual-services

minister Margaret Thatcher. It was used to signify Thatcher’s claim

4  https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/campaigns/harmful-

that the market economy is the only system that works, and that

online-content/what-we-heard.html

there was nothing to debate.

96  /  Global Information Society Watch

this is not the case in the field of digital rights. For

revisions which show the capacities of these move-

instance,  when  ethical  hackers  easily  infiltrated

ments, and the responsiveness of the government. It

the COVID vaccination app in Quebec, and pointed

can be expected that further adjustments will occur

out  the  app’s  weaknesses  to  the  government,  they

in future versions of the laws, but nobody knows ex-

were  immediately  labelled  as  anti-government  and

actly how flexible the government will finally be.

threatened with judicial proceedings, but hardly any

Two  issues  can,  nevertheless,  be  considered

organisation stood up to support them.

new issues:

Digital  rights  organisations  are  probably  not

•  A  vaccine  passport,  falling  under  the  jurisdic-

spending  enough  of  their  resources  on  educating

tion of each of the country’s ten provinces. The

other  organisations  or  their  constituents  about

passports were originally created to encourage

the  importance  and  challenges  of  digital  rights.  A

people to get vaccinated, but since Canada now

study6 by Lab-Delta, a Montreal-based group doing

has one of the highest levels of vaccination in the

research  on  technology  and  activism,  concluded

world, their utility has become highly question-

after  interviewing  university  students  that  even

able.  In  Quebec,  the  government  also  decided

when people assume and pretend that they under-

to  create  an  app  to  replace  a  paper  document,

stand digital rights issues, the majority of them do

making  the  passport  available  only  to  mobile

not. This lack of understanding of the issues is one

phone  owners.  Furthermore,  each  province  has

reason  why  it  is  difficult  to  connect  digital  rights

its own system, creating a completely disorgan-

movements meaningfully to other societal concerns,

ised patchwork of systems.

and also shows the huge need to educate the public

•  The  Canadian  government  showing  its  willing-

on digital rights issues.

ness  to  track  millions  of  mobile  devices  during

However, there is only so much digital rights or-

lockdowns  to  “analyse”  people’s  movement,

ganisations can do. Their resources are limited, and

without there being any real public protection in

most  of  them  are  currently  spent  on  engaging  the

the current legislation.

government on policy and legislation, as was clear

from the last two roundtables held at the Canadian

What is also clearly necessary is that digital rights

IGF. While there were many recommendations, they

organisations  need  to  challenge  their  advocacy  si-

were all directed at what the government should do.

los, and begin to build broader advocacy movements

that  include  other  actors,  including  at  the  commu-

Conclusion

nity level. This is all the more important given that

I would argue that there has been more of a pause

the  restrictions  contemplated  and  enacted  by  the

than a real shift in digital rights advocacy in Canada

government are cross-cutting and have implications

as a result of the pandemic. Central issues facing the

for everyone in the country.

movement, namely the lack of networking inside and

What is interesting is that when movements con-

outside the movement, and the lack of public edu-

front  the  government  on  issues  like  hate  speech,

cation,  were  realities  prior  to  March  2020,  and  are

often activists tend to focus the discussion on legis-

likely to persist in the near future.

lation. But involving others with fresh approaches in

Even  the  two  new  federal  laws,  C-11  and  C-36,

the discussions might well open them up to new ide-

were already planned, at least as far as government

as.  An  advocacy  approach  countering  hate  speech

intentions go, as early as 2019. The scope they in-

could for instance also involve proactive strategies

itially  chose  to  give  to  these  bills  was  boosted  by

using education – formal and informal – as well as

the  sudden  need  to  counter  COVID  disinformation,

supporting  interventions  by  community-based  or-

which  was  not  expected,  but  a  mandate  letter  to

ganisations.  Digital  literacy  training,  so  that  the

the  Canadian  Heritage  Minister  in  December  20197

public  can  recognise  when  content  is  abusive,  is

already mentioned the government’s plans to create

also  essential.  After  all,  instead  of  overly  restric-

new regulations for social media platforms, requir-

tive legislation, in 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur

ing  them  and  internet  service  providers  (ISPs)  to

on  the  right  to  freedom  of  opinion  and  expression

remove “illegal content”, including hate speech.

encouraged  states  to  explore  alternative  ways  to

The  rights  movement  –  including  the  digital

combat  hate  speech,  including  creating  platforms

rights  movement  –  responded  to  these  and  forced

for dialogue.8

8  UN Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to

6  Couture, S., et al. (2021).  Stratégies d’engagement pour et par

Protect. (2020).  United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate

le numérique. Lab-Delta. https://www.labdelta.ca/publications/

Speech: Detailed Guidance on Implementation for United Nations

strategies-dengagement-pour-et-par-le-numerique

Field Presences. https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/

7  https://pm.gc.ca/en/mandate-letters/2019/12/13/

documents/UN%20Strategy%20and%20PoA%20on%20Hate%20

archived-minister-canadian-heritage-mandate-letter

Speech_Guidance%20on%20Addressing%20in%20field.pdf

CANADA / 97

Action steps

•  Provide  narrower,  clearer  definitions  of  the  il-

Specifically, movements should:

legal  and  harmful  content  addressed  by  the

pending legislation.

•  Force governments to revoke vaccine passports

in every province.

•  Acknowledge  that  using  automated  decision

making  to  flag  and  remove  content  should  be

•  Lobby  the  federal  government  for  a  law  to  be

avoided, as it will lead to legitimate content be-

adopted  aimed  at  creating  rules  around  how

ing censored.

public bodies report on the collection and use of

sensitive personal information, and provide over-

•  Acknowledge that automated systems that send

sight  from  an  independent  third  party,  like  the

user  data  to  law  enforcement  agencies  should

Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada.

also be avoided.

•  Work towards creating a pan-Canadian network

•  Acknowledge  that  there  are  other  avenues  to

on digital security. The global IGF may be held in

deal with online harms, and explore these before

Canada in 2024, and this might help to facilitate

resorting  to  removing  content,  such  as  digital

such a process.

literacy, understanding better the impact of paid-

for content on hate speech, as well as the role of

•  Connect  more  with  offline  movements  to  avoid

competition law in this regard, and more control

solely  techno-centric  or  legislative  answers  to

for users over the algorithms used in their con-

issues.

tent feeds.10

On the C11 and C36 bills, movements should advo-

cate for the government to:

•  Reaffirm  its  commitment  to  net  neutrality  and

the principles of the open internet.

•  Reflect  on  enforcing  existing  laws  to  keep  big

tech  companies  in  check  and  ensure  they  are

held responsible for the harms occurring on their

platforms.

•  Define  clearly  several  key  terms  and  concepts

before regulating big tech.9

9  Several key terms and concepts are mentioned in the laws that

10  This last point was raised at the Canadian IGF, where one

need better definition, such as “CanCon” (Canadian content),

participant suggested that giving more algorithmic choice or

“discoverability”, “social media services”, and the delineation

control over algorithms to parents could provide for a better online

between companies’ services and the companies themselves.

experience for their children.

98  /  Global Information Society Watch

COLOMBIA

DIGITAL ADAPTATION UNDER COVID-19 – ONLY A REALITY FOR A FEW

food and humanitarian assistance projects in different

Colnodo

Marcya Hernández

regions of the country, including in urban and rural ar-

https://www.colnodo.apc.org/

eas, and in ethnic communities. Many of these projects

relied on the participation of communities themselves.

The  organisations  explained  the  immense  difficulties

they  faced  when  they  started  the  confinement  meas-

Introduction

ures in March 2020 and the changes they implemented

Two years after the dynamics of public and private or-

to continue their institutional programmes so that they

ganisations around the world began to be transformed

could fulfil the objectives of their projects.

by the health emergency caused by COVID-19, it is of

great importance to review the implications of these

Waiting time, uncertainty and internal adjustments

new  circumstances  for  civil  society  organisations

The organisations experienced the arrival of COVID-19

(CSOs) in Colombia.

in Colombia and the beginning of preventive isolation

How did the prevention measures adopted during

in a very similar way: a completely unexpected situa-

the  past  two  years  affect  the  development  of  pro-

tion that, in principle, forced the vast majority of people

grammes  and  projects?  How  were  digital  solutions

to work remotely, and which required the optimisation

incorporated into the new dynamics of organisations?

of  digital  tools,  particularly  tools  for  communication

And what were the implications of these changes for

and interaction, to maintain team dynamics.

what we call the “integral security” of communities –

What began as a temporary contingency measure

or the context and capacity of communities to enact

became  a  permanent  dynamic  in  a  new  institutional

their rights both online and offline? These are some of

context that implied fundamental changes. The wait-

the questions that guided the conversation with CSOs

ing period to return to “normality” became a time of

and allowed an understanding of the main challenges

uncertainty  and  constant  questioning;  a  time  char-

they face in the midst of such a particular and unex-

acterised  by  profound  reflections,  adjustments  and

pected context.

structural  transformations  that  allowed  the  entities

The impact of COVID-19 was felt globally, and the

to continue implementing their programmes and pro-

world of work was no exception. However, for organ-

jects within the framework of a new reality.

isations that run social and humanitarian projects in

That first few months of the pandemic resulted in

different  regions  of  the  country,  the  preventive  iso-

an unprecedented effort by the CSOs to adapt to the

lation  measures  and  the  cancellation  of  face-to-face

sudden  change.  It  demonstrated  their  strength  and

events meant great changes in their internal dynamics,

social commitment to keep the projects going and to

in the methods of interacting with communities, and in

propose alternatives in the development of activities

the perception of the privacy of their information. This

that prioritised face-to-face activities and in which hu-

had implications for the integral security of children,

man contact was fundamental for the achievement of

young  people,  and  leaders  and  activists  working  for

project objectives.

the defence of human rights.

For  many  organisations  that  have  lived  through

these  past  two  years  between  uncertainty  and  op-

CSOs in Colombia: Diverse contexts and

portunity, ICTs have allowed them to digitise training,

particular challenges

participation  and  advocacy  processes.  This  has

In  order  to  understand  what  COVID-19  has  meant  for

CSOs in Colombia, we approached people from different

organisations1  that  ran  social,  educational,  economic,

partnership with UN Women and the UN Central Emergency Response

Fund (CERF), in the department of Chocó; Lucy Cardona, lawyer and

project coordinator for the AVP Foundation for Social Development;

Genith Quitiaquez, a representative of the Pastos Indigenous

1  Persons interviewed: Sandra Saenz Sotomonte, member of

community in the department of Nariño (during the two years of the

the coordinating team of the Women’s Network for Economic

pandemic she served as governor of the Gran Tescual Indigenous

Empowerment in the Province of Vélez, department of Santander;

Reservation, one of the Pastos people’s 25 reservations); and Luisa

Liliana García, coordinator of the project “Response to the emergency

Fernanda González, vice president of the Schools of Peace Foundation,

situation and the disproportionate impacts of the pandemic on

in charge of pedagogy and knowledge management, and a member of

women’s lives” carried out by the Lutheran World Federation in

the Women and Peace Summit movement.

COLOMBIA / 99

involved  improving  skills  in  the  use  of  technological

daily life of communities, their social and family ties,

tools and also being more aware of the risks to which

their productive activity, their economic income and, of

they are exposed in the digital world.

course,  their  physical  and  mental  health.  In  contexts

For  example,  for  organisations  like  the  Women’s

of precariousness and exclusion these effects were un-

Network  for  Economic  Empowerment  in  the  province

doubtedly much stronger.

of  Vélez,  which  runs  the  Escuela  de  Formación  por  el

For organisations that experience a reality of dep-

Derecho de las Mujeres a la Ciudad y el Territorio y las Es-

rivation and exclusion, the main digital rights that are

cuelas de Paz  (Training School for Women’s Rights to the

violated  are  not  having  access  to  technological  de-

City and Territory and the Schools of Peace),   digital tools

vices, quality connectivity and training opportunities.

allowed them to advance in the development of educa-

Although this does not seem to be a high priority when

tional programmes. They managed to decentralise and

compared  to  fundamental  rights  related  to  the  guar-

expand the participation of people in different parts of

antee  of  life,  such  as  access  to  food,  drinking  water,

the country, and also to optimise the reuse of resources

health care and the prevention of physical or emotional

such as time and travelling costs needed for face-to-face

violence, the fact is that the appropriation of ICTs can

meetings that were usually held in capital cities.

facilitate access to other rights.

In  this  sense,  CSOs  have  valued  the  workshops

In  this  regard,  the  pandemic  forced  the  redesign

and  advice  they  have  received  from  Colnodo  during

of projects and budgets by CSOs so that they included

this time on digital security issues, with the purpose

the purchase of tablets, payments for connectivity ser-

of guiding them to safeguard their privacy and protect

vices, and even allocations for transportation, so that

their personal and institutional information. They have

people could travel to places with a better internet sig-

also had the opportunity to share this knowledge with

nal and thus connect to virtual sessions run by various

children,  young  people  and  community  leaders,  pro-

initiatives. This was an important effort on the part of

moting good practices in using the internet.

the CSOs, as these expenses were not initially budget-

However, this process of redesigning projects high-

ed for in their projects.

lighted  a  great  paradox  of  the  digital  era.  For  some

A  great  example  of  the  capacity  for  adaptation

organisations  this  time  meant  a  learning  experience;

and  appropriation  of  technologies  happened  in  the

for others, the reality of lack and precariousness. The

Resguardo Indígena Gran Tescual (Gran Tescual Indig-

experiences were as gratifying for some as they were

enous  Reservation),  which  is  located  in  the  south  of

devastating for others.

the country and is home to the Pastos Indigenous peo-

For  some  organisations,  remote  interaction  was

ple. The project team managed to implement a virtual

insufficient  because  the  reality  of  the  communities

training strategy aimed at the more technically skilled

essentially  requires  direct  face-to-face  work.  This  in-

people  in  the  communities,  who  received  technical

cludes,  for  example,  organisations  working  on  food

training from experts who could not travel to the ter-

security,  basic  sanitation,  or  attending  to  violence

ritory due to isolation measures. This knowledge was

and  psychosocial  support  in  communities  that  have

then shared with families in the region through in-per-

historically experienced state abandonment. In these

son visits, strengthening community ties.

communities,  the  precariousness  of  living  conditions

However,  under  COVID-19  preventive  measures,

is enormous and, of course, technological devices are

CSOs also saw setbacks in some of the processes that

very scarce and internet connectivity is deficient.

were being developed in communities. An example of

For  organisations  working  in  these  communities,

this is the strengthening of criminal paramilitary gangs

remote  work  within  the  organisations  was  a  minor

in the department of Chocó in the west of Colombia.

change  compared  to  the  greater  challenge  of  imple-

Here the presence of humanitarian organisations im-

menting  activities  remotely  with  the  communities  in

plementing  initiatives  with  the  community  had  been

the different regions of the country.

respected,  but  unfortunately  the  preventive  isolation

limited  their  institutional  presence  in  the  region  and

Challenges faced by communities

made  it  possible  for  the  armed  groups  to  occupy  or

Talking  about  integral  security  in  the  framework  of

make their presence felt again in the territory.

rights  implies  reviewing  the  particular  conditions  of

Violence  against  children  and  women  increased,

communities and their capacity to exercise autonomy

given that they had to be confined under the same roof

to guarantee their well-being or a good life, both in the

with  their  abusers,  isolated  from  their  wider  family

physical and digital environment.

or community support network, and subjected to the

While a situation like COVID-19 puts food security

conditions laid down by the breadwinner. It is impor-

at risk, especially in cities that depend to a large extent

tant to mention that women were the first to lose their

on centralised distribution channels, the pandemic and

jobs:  for  the  October-December  quarter  in  2020,  un-

the measures implemented to deal with it affected the

employment among women reached 18.7%, compared

100  /  Global Information Society Watch

to 10.2% for men. And it is also women who dedicate

and gender approach. In addition, for the privacy of

more hours to household chores and unpaid care ac-

information and security of leaders and activists, it is

tivities – an average of 28.4 hours per week, while men

preferable to address sensitive issues in person and

only dedicate 12.3 hours to these tasks.2

not through digital media.

In  communities  that  did  have  connectivity,  many

With respect to virtual activities, it is essential to

expressed fear of the risks posed by the uncontrolled

explore new digital tools, innovative methodologies

use  of  digital  tools  by  children  and  young  people  in

and participatory dynamics that make these spaces

particular. This includes the personal and family infor-

much  more  enjoyable  and  attractive  to  those  who

mation that they may share with strangers, the sharing

are  not  familiar  with  information  and  communica-

of intimate images and the consequences that this en-

tions technologies (ICTs).

tails,  cyber-dependence,  social  isolation,  loneliness

For  CSO  management  teams,  it  is  necessary  to

and  mental  health  problems.  All  of  these  are  situa-

establish  a  relationship  of  active  listening  with  pro-

tions that concern CSOs and they consider that they

fessionals  working  in  the  territories,  and  to  design

deserve to be addressed. Some educational initiatives

strategies for fluid communication that allow for a fo-

have been launched by CSOs in this regard, especially

cus more on the quality of the processes involving the

including families and groups of young women. How-

communities and less on administrative protocols. It

ever, this concern requires further consideration and

is also important to implement an ethical concept of

advice from expert organisations.

care that takes into account their well-being in rela-

It is also evident that due to the scarcity of resourc-

tion to the risks they experience in the territories.

es  and  the  barriers  to  accessing  virtual  education,

Finally, it is important to mention that the level

many young people abandoned their studies in the de-

of understanding and flexibility that donors show in

partment of Nariño, also in the west of the country, and

a  contingency  situation  is  key  to  allowing  CSOs  to

bordering Ecuador. Instead they dedicated themselves

propose viable alternatives in the redesign of their

to collecting coca leaves to contribute to the economic

activities,  so  that  the  objectives  of  their  projects

support of their families. As Genith Quitiaquez, a mem-

and  the  requirements  of  the  communities  are  met.

ber of the Indigenous Pastos community, put it, “We can

Exerting too much pressure to achieve goals within

no longer recover these young people.”

specific  time  frames,  without  taking  into  account

the  context,  generates  emotional  exhaustion  and

Conclusion

frustration in project teams and can also affect the

Dealing  with  the  impact  of  the  health  emergency

quality of the process.

caused by COVID-19 has been a very demanding and

exhausting  task  for  CSOs.  It  has  implied  profound

Action steps

transformations  both  in  their  internal  dynamics  and

The  following  considerations  are  suggested  for

in  their  outreach  to  communities.  This  is  a  learning

organisations  that  are  launching  digital  pro-

path that is just beginning, and relies on an openness

jects  in  Colombia,  particularly  in  disadvantaged

to change and redesigning work models that strategi-

communities:

cally  combine  face-to-face  and  virtual  activities,  and

•  Include  a  training  component  in  basic  digital

which include training to strengthen digital skills, to

skills in the design of the projects for those who

prevent  risks,  and  on  the  responsible  use  of  ICTs  in

require it.

communities. This also involves consideration of bet-

•  Share best practices in the responsible use of ICTs

ter ways for people in the regions to access devices

and tools for risk prevention in digital spaces.

and connect to the internet.

It  is  necessary  to  listen  to  the  demand  for  face-

•  Include  solutions  for  access  to  technological

to-face  activities  in  particular  contexts.  In  projects

devices  and/or  internet  connectivity  for  people

related to food security, basic sanitation, violence and

facing these as barriers to getting online.

psychosocial  support,  and  especially  in  ethnic  and

•  Strategically  and  creatively  propose  virtual

peasant  communities,  it  is  very  important  to  priori-

and  face-to-face  methodologies  according  to

tise  face-to-face  activities  that  ensure  a  differential3

the  realistic  potential  of  the  communities  to

participate, taking into account the nuances of

2   Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE), 2021.

their context.

3  The differential approach identifies the diverse conceptions,

•  Consider  the  concept  of  care  as  a  cross-cutting

meanings and logics of life and collective and personal thinking

shared by people in order to enhance differential actions that

ethical  framework  for  all  of  an  organisation’s

materialise the effective enjoyment of their rights. It makes it possible

processes.  This  should  include  communication,

to understand and make visible the dynamics of discrimination and

safety, physical and emotional well-being and care

social exclusion, so that from there, actions for transformation to

equity and human development can be established.

of the communities where work is being done.

COLOMBIA / 101

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

CIVIC SPACE ONLINE DURING AND AFTER THE

PANDEMIC

around 88.18 million.2 This increase of around four

Bingwa Civic Tech Lab

Providence Baraka

percentage points can at least in part be explained

www.bingwa-civictech.org

by the COVID-19 pandemic that forced many people

online, whether to work or to stay in contact with the

people they care about around the world.

Introduction

Despite this, internet access remains a luxury in

The advent of the coronavirus pandemic has brought

the DRC – it is one of the most expensive countries in

different challenges in almost all aspects of the daily

the world to be connected to the internet.3

lives of citizens around the world and has deepened

inequalities in many developing countries.

The introduction of a new mobile tax

The measures taken by governments to stop or

Digital  rights  issues  –  including  access,  the  inclu-

reduce the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, such

sion of local and marginalised communities in policy

as limiting the movement of individuals, social dis-

making,  and  censorship  –  have  often  been  at  the

tancing and travel restrictions, quickly revealed the

centre  of  advocacy  activities  of  civil  society  organ-

need to migrate different social dynamics to online

isations  in  the  country.  For  example,  over  the  past

platforms in order to ensure continuity. In many Af-

10 years, under Framework Law No. 013-2002 of 16

rican  countries,  this  negatively  affected  areas  that

October  2002  governing  telecommunications,4  the

were  already  struggling  and  unequal  relative  to

country has drawn the attention of activists, both lo-

countries  in  the  global  North,  including  in  employ-

cally and globally, who have pointed to human rights

ment, education, health and transport.

violations enabled by the law. Through this law, au-

Internet access statistics for the Democratic Re-

thorities have strategically put in place mechanisms

public  of  Congo  (DRC)  show  a  marked  increase  in

to  stifle  public  protests  and  criticism  of  the  ruling

access  in  the  first  year  of  the  pandemic.  However,

powers  by  shutting  down  the  internet,  including

this potential for Congolese citizens to realise their

messaging services, and filtering the internet.5

rights  online  was  to  a  large  extent  limited  by  the

This concern with digital rights continued under

opportunistic  actions  of  the  government,  which  in-

the “new normal”.

troduced a new mobile tax, as well as by an increase

In  September  2020,  while  the  world  was  suf-

in gender-based violence online. Both of these nar-

fering  the  negative  effects  of  the  pandemic,  the

rowed the civic space online.

government,  through  the  Minister  of  Posts,  Tel-

Civil society organisations nevertheless saw an

ecommunications  and  New  Information  and

opportunity  to  use  online  platforms  to  campaign

Communication Technologies, announced the estab-

against the new government tax laws, and to raise

lishment of the Mobile Device Registry (RAM).6 This

awareness against online gender-based violence.

introduced a mobile device tax (known as the “RAM

tax”),  under  which  users  of  telecommunications

An increase in internet access during

services pay between USD 0.17 for a 2G device and

COVID-19

USD 1.17 for 3G/4G/+ devices once a month over six

The DRC is a Central African country with nearly 90.9

months. According to the DataReportal website, the

million inhabitants, with an estimated internet pen-

etration rate of nearly 23.2% in the first quarter of

2  Kemp, S. (2020, 17 February). Digital 2020: The Democratic Republic

of the Congo.  DataReportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/

2021.1 In 2019, the country had around 16.35 million

digital-2020-democratic-republic-of-the-congo

internet  users  on  different  devices,  which  repre-

3  https://a4ai.org/mobile-broadband-pricing-usd-2019q2

sented a 19% penetration rate out of a population of

4  http://www.leganet.cd/Legislation/Droit%20economique/

telecommunication/LC.013.2002.16.10.2002.htm

5  Dahir, A. L. (2018, 24 January). There’s a decades-old law

threatening digital freedom in DR Congo.  Quartz. https://qz.com/

africa/1187727/the-dr-congo-is-using-a-decades-old-law-to-

shut-down-the-internet

1  Kemp, S. (2021, 11 February). Digital 2021: The Democratic Republic

6  Actualite.cd. (2020, 24 September). RDC: lancement à Kinshasa du

of the Congo.  DataReportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/

Registre des Appareils Mobiles. https://actualite.cd/2020/09/24/

digital-2021-democratic-republic-of-the-congo?rq=congo

rdc-lancement-kinshasa-du-registre-des-appareils-mobiles

102  /  Global Information Society Watch

number of mobile connections in the DRC increased

technology (ICT) tools.11 For almost a month, from 22

by  nearly  one  million  between  2019  and  2020.7

February to 20 March 2021, the campaign was con-

However, civil society organisations have expressed

ducted on the various social media platforms, mainly

concern that this trend will be reversed due to the

on Twitter, using the campaign’s hashtag.

introduction of the new tax.8

Communities were nevertheless quick to exploit

Conclusion

some  of  the  means  available  online  to  deepen  the

Online civic space during and after the worst of the

advocacy already initiated to counter this decision,

pandemic is being pushed both ways. In this sense,

which weighed heavily on a poor population whose

it can be said to be both narrowing and expanding.

living conditions had been aggravated by the effects

The  internet  has  played  a  very  important  role

of COVID-19.9

during  the  pandemic  by  mitigating  many  of  its  ef-

Twitter  spaces  played  an  important  role  in  this

fects through substitution, or taking some processes

process,  which  brought  citizens  together,  and  also

and  services  online.  However,  the  government  has

saw the participation of several influential figures in

worked  against  this  by  introducing  a  controversial

the country, including national deputies and Congo-

tax on mobile devices, the main way that Congolese

lese civil society leaders.

citizens  access  the  internet.  At  the  same  time,  as

more people have come online through necessity in

An increase in gender-based violence

the DRC, there has been an increase in gender-based

While the pandemic has meant that many new peo-

violence  online.  These  two  factors,  alongside  the

ple are now connected, and many are what we could

high cost of data for the average Congolese citizen,

call  “overly  connected”,  this  has  not  been  without

have  limited  the  potential  for  citizens  to  properly

consequences  for  new  infringements  of  human

realise  their  rights  online,  including  access  to  in-

rights. In particular, civil society organisations have

formation,  education  and  work.  Civil  society  has

noted an increase in gender-based violence on the

nevertheless capitalised on an increase in access by

internet, accentuated by the fact that the internet is

Congolese citizens to launch two important advoca-

the new meeting place for many people.

cy campaigns using social media.

Barely a day goes by in the DRC without a young

Apart from revealing the resilience of the inter-

woman falling victim to sexual or sexist violence per-

net as a critical communications tool, the COVID-19

petrated online. Lacking access to quality education

pandemic  has  shaped  the  way  civil  society  organi-

– which may at least offer some context and defence

sations conduct their advocacy work around issues

against these assaults – for the most part Congolese

related  to  digital  technologies,  including  digital

women  and  girls  are  paying  a  heavy  price  socially,

rights. While the use of social media for campaign-

but also in their professional capacities as academ-

ing in the DRC is not a new phenomenon, as more

ics, journalists or politicians, among others.10

people come online, it has grown in prominence as

In  order  to  curb,  or  even  stop,  the  rise  of  gen-

a  potentially  effective  tool  for  advocacy.  That  plat-

der-based violence online, civil society organisations

forms such as Twitter are becoming more useful to

including  Si  Jeunesse  Savait,  SEFEPADI,  BloGoma,

the  Congolese  is  suggested  by  citizen  initiatives

Jeunialissime, Oasis and Cuso International initiated

that  have  emerged,  including  SpacesRDC,12  which

the  #TechSansViolences  (“tech  without  violence”)

provides  Twitter  users  with  a  weekly  calendar  for

campaign.  #TechSansViolences  is  an  awareness

meetings  (#TwitterSpaceRDC),  to  help  them  align

campaign  against  gender-based  violence  online,

events in the DRC alongside different topics.

with  the  aim  of  alerting  internet  users,  Congolese

At the same time, the new mobile tax introduced

authorities and the community, and more particular-

by  the  government  during  COVID-19  does  not  nec-

ly women, girls and sexual minorities, of the harmful

essarily introduce a new focus of resistance – even

effects  of  sexual  and  gender-based  violence  per-

though advocacy is necessary to push for the law’s

petrated  through  information  and  communications

revision.  The  government  has  long  been  inclined

to limit the use of the internet in various ways, and

taxing mobile access is just a new way in which this

is being done. However, it does suggest an intensi-

7  Kemp, S. (2020, 17 February). Op. cit.

8  Rudi International. (2020, 18 September). Rudi International se joint à

fication of government limitations, which need to be

d’autres voix pour dire non à la taxe sur les téléphones mobiles en RDC.

https://rudiinternational.org/2020/09/18/rudi-international-se-joint-a-

dautres-voix-pour-dire-non-a-la-taxe-sur-les-telephones-mobiles-en-rdc

11  Cuso International. (2021, 8 October). Congolese women

9  Ibid.

strengthen their digital skills to fight online violence. https://

10  SOFEPADI. (n/d). Communiqué de lancement de la campagne

cusointernational.org/stories/congolese-women-strengthen-their-

#TechSansViolences. https://www.sofepadirdc.org/

digital-skills-to-fight-online-violence

communique-de-lancement-de-la-campagne-techsansviolences

12  https://twitter.com/SpacesRDC

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF / 103

addressed by civil society if the internet is to enable

rights-based policy decisions are made that sup-

the rights of ordinary Congolese.

port the affordable take-up of the internet, and

in the absence of restrictive regulations such as

Action steps

additional taxation or forms of censorship.

These recommendations draw on the input from dif-

•  Immediately revise Law No. 013-2002 to bring it

ferent  stakeholders  involved  in  digital  and  human

in  line  with  international  norms  on  freedom  of

rights in the DRC:

expression and association, as well as with gov-

ernment commitments in this regard.

•  Civil  society  should  realise  both  the  potential

and  limitations  of  the  internet  as  an  advoca-

•  Through  multistakeholder  deliberations,  revise

cy  tool.  Given  less  than  25%  of  the  population

the  Mobile  Device  Registry  (RAM)  law,  so  that

has access to the internet in the DRC, advocacy

unfair taxes do not limit the take-up of the inter-

activities in this regard are only likely to impact

net by ordinary Congolese who do not have the

most on those already online. In terms of push-

resources  to  do  so.  Encourage  the  government

ing  for  legislative  change,  the  internet  can  be

not  to  see  the  internet  as  a  tax  resource  that

a  useful  tool  given  that  many  parliamentarians

cripples its ability to enable the rights of people

and prominent civil society organisations are on-

in the DRC.

line.  Similarly,  on  internet-specific  issues,  such

•  Push  for  a  dramatic  lowering  in  data  costs.

as  online  gender-based  violence,  social  media

Through  campaigns  and  multistakeholder  dis-

campaigns are appropriate. However, the limited

cussions, continue to advocate for data costs to

civic space allowed by the internet needs to be

come down in the DRC.

kept in mind when using the internet for broad-

•  Strengthen  the  participation  of  civil  society  or-

based campaigns in the DRC.

ganisations in multistakeholder forums such as

•  Develop  policies  conducive  to  the  promotion

the Internet Governance Forum, as a way to build

of  internet  access  and  the  accessibility  of  ICTs.

both the capacity and the influence of civil soci-

Policy  revision  is  necessary  in  the  DRC  so  that

ety organisations concerned with digital rights.

104  /  Global Information Society Watch

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

FACT CHECKING TO AVOID INTERNET SHUTDOWNS:

LESSONS FROM THE DRC

meetings were prohibited, and schools, universities,

Mesh Bukavu

discotheques,  bars,  cafés  and  restaurants  closed.

Pacifique Zikomangane

Later on, measures were taken to quarantine certain

communes and neighbourhoods in the capital city of

Introduction

Kinshasa and in other cities of the country such as

Goma and Bukavu.

In  the  Democratic  Republic  of  Congo  (DRC),  the

All  these  responses  to  the  pandemic  triggered

COVID-19 pandemic has been accompanied by false

many forms of resistance in the country. This resist-

information1 that has made efforts to control the dis-

ance  was  often  directed  against  the  containment

ease’s spread difficult. As a result of this, the health

measures and other restrictions on people’s freedom

measures  taken  and  announced  by  the  Congolese

of movement. The resistance also showed a distrust

authorities to combat the spread of COVID-19 have

of the government. This was particularly felt in the

not been respected by a significant number of peo-

eastern part of the DRC, where, in the face of grow-

ple in the country. Social media has been the main

ing insecurity due to the activism of armed groups,

platform  for  the  propagation  of  the  false  informa-

the  population  feels  abandoned,  is  fighting  for  its

tion,  presenting  a  real  challenge  for  Congolese

survival and has little confidence in the authorities.

authorities.

Some  people  believe  that  the  authorities  took

In the past, when there was such a strong spread

these  measures  simply  to  get  money  from  donors.

of  false  information,  Congolese  authorities  imme-

Despite the increasing number of deaths from COV-

diately  resorted  to  internet  and  SMS  shutdowns.2

ID-19, many say that the pandemic is only a “financial

This practice has always been denounced by human

matter” which benefits the authorities in view of the

rights advocates.

significant  resources  mobilised  by  the  government

In this report I am going to talk about how the

as well as by bilateral and multilateral cooperation

COVID-19 pandemic has somehow changed the be-

organisations to fight this disease. This belief is re-

haviour of Congolese authorities in the fight against

inforced by suspicions of the misappropriation and

false  information.  I  discuss  how  Congo  Check,3

mismanagement  of  resources  regularly  reported

a  Congolese  fact-checking  organisation,  and  In-

in the media. These suspicions were not helped by

ternews, an international media development NGO,

rumours that people who did not die from COVID-19

have  shown  that  educating  the  population  about

were formally counted as victims of the pandemic in

media  content  and  producing  good  information  is

exchange for USD 5,000 per corpse, in order to am-

more effective in the fight against false information

plify the pandemic’s gravity.5

than internet shutdowns.

False information about the pandemic was circu-

False information on COVID-19 in the DRC

lated mostly on social media, and came in different

forms, sometimes as a result of media reporting. One

The first case of COVID-19 was reported in the DRC

rumour that made it into the media even considered

on  10  March  2020  by  the  Congolese  Minister  of

the office of the president as being at the epicentre

Health Dr. Eteni Longondo.4 Nine days later, the gov-

of the first deaths reported at the beginning of the

ernment  announced  measures  to  fight  the  spread

pandemic.  Moreover,  while  cases  and  deaths  from

of  the  pandemic,  among  which  all  gatherings  and

COVID-19 were recorded, the most publicised were

those of well-known political, academic or religious

leaders over 50 years old. This meant that most of

1  This report uses the term “false information” to refer to

the  population  thought  and  still  thinks  that  COV-

misinformation and disinformation.

ID-19 is a disease that only affects the wealthy and

2  Tungali, A. (2017, 31 March). The Evolution of Internet

Shutdowns in DR Congo.  CIPESA. https://cipesa.org/2017/03/

elderly, and not young people who come from less

the-evolution-of-internet-shutdowns-in-dr-congo

3  https://congocheck.net/a-propos

5  Ekofo, J., & Ibaji, M. (2020, 9 September). Les rumeurs à la base du

4  Crisis24. (2020, 11 March). DRC: First coronavirus case confirmed

déni de Covid-19 : un obstacle à la lutte contre cette pandémie en

March 10. https://crisis24.garda.com/alerts/2020/03/

République Démocratique du Congo.  CCSC. https://www.ccsc-rdc.

drc-first-coronavirus-case-confirmed-march-10?origin=fr_riskalert

net/blog-single2.php?idart=679

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF / 105

affluent families – the latter representing the largest

The organisation has created a special section on its

part of the Congolese population.

website – Fact Check COVID-197 – where it publishes

While social media was flooded by these sorts of

news and information to deconstruct false informa-

misconceptions, rumours and false information, in-

tion  about  the  virus.  Because  false  information  is

stead of internet shutdowns, which it had relied on in

sometimes accompanied by doctored images, Congo

the past, the government took a different approach:

Check  also  verifies  images  by  using  different  tools

it relied on the efforts of civil society organisations

such  as  Google’s  image  search,  InVID  and  TinEye.

and international NGOs to produce and disseminate

Congo  Check  does  not  receive  any  financial  sup-

good  information  about  the  pandemic  through  the

port  from  the  government  or  any  of  the  Congolese

same social media.

authorities. However, within the framework of COV-

ID-19,  the  Ministries  of  Health  and  Communication

Civil society organisation committed to

have  relied  heavily  on  its  work.  This  has  included

fighting false information

providing Congo Check with correct information on

“Our greatest enemy right now is not the virus itself.

the  pandemic  and  official  information  on  govern-

It’s  fear,  rumours  and  stigma.  And  our  greatest  as-

ment decisions and policies. Congo Check then uses

sets  are  facts,  reason  and  solidarity.”6  These  were

this  information  to  write  the  content  of  its  articles

the words of Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, the

and  posts,  which  its  publishes  on  its  own  website

Director-General  of  the  World  Health  Organization.

and social media pages.

As in the rest of the world, false information in the

From  this  perspective,  Congo  Check  is  a  stra-

DRC is about the spreading of unsourced messages

tegic  partner  for  the  Congolese  authorities  in  the

through social media. These messages not only in-

fight  against  the  propagation  of  false  information.

creased  fear  and  uncertainty  in  the  population  but

As  Rodriguez  Katsuva,  an  editor  at  Congo  Check,

also  fuelled  the  public’s  contestation  of  measures

put  it:  “Every  time  there  is  a  rumour,  whether  it’s

taken by government authorities to combat the pan-

about the pandemic, whether it’s about the govern-

demic,  and  increased  the  mistrust  of  information

ment,  whether  it’s  about  the  actions  of  politicians,

disseminated  by  the  country’s  health  and  political

we  do  our  job  and  in  a  concrete  way  we  help  the

authorities.

government.”8

This situation has been a great challenge for the

In  addition  to  the  work  of  Congo  Check,  the

Congolese authorities. On the one hand, there was

Congolese government has also relied on the work

the need to push back against false information, and

of  international  organisations  such  as  Internews.9

on the other hand, there was a need to enforce the

Internews  is  a  global  non-profit  media  training  or-

health measures they had taken to fight against the

ganisation  that  works  with  the  media  in  the  DRC,

spread of COVID-19.

and  has  set  up  a  project  called  COVID-19  Rapid

While  some  feared  internet  shutdowns,  they

Response in the Great Lakes Region. Under this pro-

were surprised when the government instead relied

ject,  Internews set  up  a  desk  that  was  responsible

on two independent organisations, Congo Check and

for  dismantling  false  information  about  COVID-19

Internews, for help.

by  referencing  reliable  information  disseminated

Congo  Check  is  a  media  outlet  specialising  in

by  political  and  health  authorities  and  humanitari-

fact checking in the DRC. Created in 2018 in the con-

an  workers. The  desk  offered  a  specialised  service

text of the electoral process – often a time of much

of  fact  checkers  made  up  of  senior  journalists  and

manipulation,  including  the  manipulation  of  data

computer scientists responsible for finding false in-

and people in the DRC – its main purpose is to dis-

formation on social media and publicly exposing and

pel misinformation and disinformation by providing

correcting it using the same channels of dissemina-

accurate, fact-based information. Congo Check mon-

tion, mainly Facebook, Twitter and WhatsApp.

itors  information  posted  online,  including  through

messaging apps such as WhatsApp – its journalists

Fact checking rather than internet shutdowns

are members of some 30 to 40 WhatsApp groups.

There is no exact explanation to justify the change

Congo Check took up the fight against the spread

of attitude of the Congolese authorities when they

of  false  information  about  COVID-19  by  producing

did  not  resort  to  an  internet  shutdown.  Possibly  it

and disseminating verified and sourced information.

was  because  there  was  a  need  to  simultaneously

6  World Health Organization. (2020, 28 February). WHO Director-

7  https://congocheck.net/category/actus/fact-check/

General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 28

factcheck-covid/

February 2020. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/

8  Interview with Rodriguez Katsuva, editor at Congo Check, via a

detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-

WhatsApp call on 27 January 2022.

briefing-on-covid-19---28-february-2020

9  https://internews.cd/qui-sommes-nous-2/

106  /  Global Information Society Watch

communicate with the public, as much as there was

itself.15 As Mr. Katsuva surmises: “I think they have

a  need  to  limit  false  information  circulating  on  the

also  realised  that  the  internet  shutdown  is  more

internet. The change of regime in the country could

harmful  than  beneficial  in  fighting  rumours  or  any

also  be  one  of  the  reasons  –  potentially  the  main

other situation.”16

reason for the change in approach. Since 2019, just

In addition to all of the above, it is also impor-

before  the  pandemic  erupted,  the  DRC  has  had  a

tant  to  note  that  in  general,  the  false  information

new president, Félix Antoine Tshisekedi Tshilombo.10

about COVID-19 was not specifically directed at the

There is reason to believe that this former opponent

Congolese  authorities,  or  about  the  specific  situa-

of the outgoing regime, himself several times a vic-

tion in the DRC, as it originated largely outside the

tim  of  internet  shutdowns  that  he  never  ceased  to

country.  According  to  Serge  Bisimwa,  chief  editor

denounce,  wants  to  break  with  the  bad  practices

of  the  fact-checking  desk  at  Internews  DRC,  this

of his predecessor. At the same time, the new gov-

means  that  neither  the  Congolese  government  nor

ernment  has  announced  that  it  wants  to  ratify  the

the power of the Congolese authorities was threat-

African  Union  Convention  on  Cyber  Security  and

ened.  “The  laboratories  where  the  rumours  about

Personal  Data  Protection,11  known  as  the  Malabo

COVID-19 were made were not in the DRC, but out-

Convention – a move that could restrict any unilater-

side the country, and the government did not feel in

al decision on internet shutdowns under the guise of

danger from these rumours,” he said.17

national security.

The  repeated  internet  shutdowns  that  the  DRC

Conclusion

has experienced during certain political demonstra-

The arrival of COVID-19 in DRC suggests there is an-

tions would be in contravention of the international

other  way  to  combat  false  information  effectively

responsibility of the government if specific provisions

without resorting to restricting citizens’ fundamental

of  international  treaties  on  freedom  of  expression

rights  and  freedoms,  such  as  using  internet  shut-

are not respected.

downs. The  experience  of  the  organisations  Congo

International  commitments  have  been  used

Check and Internews in monitoring the internet, and

before  to  oppose  government  action  on  internet

producing and spreading verified information via the

shutdowns. During one of the previous shutdowns,

same  channels  used  to  circulate  false  information,

NGOs  threatened  to  file  a  human  rights  complaint

is worth building on. If security reasons have often

related to freedom of expression against telecommu-

been  invoked  by  government  authorities  to  justify

nications companies that obeyed the government’s

internet shutdowns, it must be recognised that the

orders before the OECD bodies in which their inter-

security of citizens has never been as threatened as

national  headquarters  are  located.12  This  follows

during  COVID-19.18  Yet  it  was  exactly  then  that  the

from  the  interpretation  of  Article  215  of  the  DRC

government turned to fact checking as a tool to edu-

constitution, which places international treaties and

cate rather than repress a dissident population. The

agreements ratified by the DRC above national laws.

DRC experience shows that the production and dis-

Another reason could be related to the financial

semination of verified information has, beyond the

cost of internet shutdowns. In the DRC, telecommu-

fight against false information, contributed to secur-

nications  companies  are  the  main  internet  service

ing the lives of citizens. “It is important to know that

providers.13 It is these companies that receive a gov-

fact  checking  saves  lives,  because  in  DRC  disinfor-

ernment  order  to  shut  down  internet  services  and

mation literally kills people,” said Katsuva.19

SMS  throughout  the  country,14  resulting  in  a  loss

However, despite what can now be described as

of revenue for them, as well as for the government

a  positive  experience  in  the  fight  against  misinfor-

mation  and  disinformation,  nothing  indicates  that

in  the  coming  days  the  Congolese  authorities  will

10  Busari, S. (2019, 24 January). Felix Tshisekedi sworn in as Congo’s

President in dramatic ceremony.  CNN. https://edition.cnn.

com/2019/01/24/africa/drc-president-sworn-in-intl/index.html

15  CIPESA. (2017).  A Framework for Calculating the Economic Impact

11  https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-treaty-0048_-_

of Internet Disruptions in Sub-Saharan Africa. https://cipesa.

african_union_convention_on_cyber_security_and_personal_data_

org/?wpfb_dl=252

protection_e.pdf

16  Interview with Rodriguez Katsuva, editor at Congo Check, via a

12  Kalonji, T. (2018, 13 November). Le cyberdroit en RDC : où en

WhatsApp call on 27 January 2022.

est-on ?  Overblog. http://tresorkalonji.pro/2018/11/le-cyberdroit-

17  Interview with Serge Bisimwa, chief editor of the Internews DRC

en-rdc-ou-en-est-on.html

fact-checking desk, on 3 February 2022.

13  https://www.broadbandspeedchecker.co.uk/isp-directory/Congo.html

18  Slugocki, W. L., & Sowa, B. (2021). Disinformation as a threat

14  Purdon, L. (2015, 19 February). Network Shutdowns in

to national security on the example of the COVID-19 pandemic.

the DRC: ICT Companies Need Clear Rules.  Institute for

Security and Defence Quarterly, 35(3), 63-74. https://doi.

Human Rights and Business. https://www.ihrb.org/

org/10.35467/sdq/138876

focus-areas/information-communication-technology/

19  Interview with Rodriguez Katsuva, editor at Congo Check, via a

network-shutdowns-in-the-drc-ict-companies-need-clear-rules

WhatsApp call on 27 January 2022.

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF / 107

not once again resort to an internet shutdown. The

Action steps

DRC is expected to hold general elections in 2023,

To encourage the government’s reliance on produc-

and it is during this period that there is always an

ing verified and sourced content as the main method

intensification of the spread of false information that

of fighting false information, Congo Check and other

can pose a serious threat to the authorities – which

civil society organisations in the DRC should do the

suggests that they would not hesitate to cut off the

following:

internet. This fear is not unfounded, and can be ex-

plained by several indicators.

•  Produce  impact  studies  that  can  serve  as  evi-

First, the political and security climate that now

dence that the circulation of verified information

prevails is bleak in all provinces and especially in the

is effective in the fight against rumours and false

capital city Kinshasa.20 Second, no legal or political

information.

mechanisms  have  been  put  in  place  to  discourage

•  Initiate  discussions  with  the  governmental  au-

the  initiators  and  creators  of  the  false  information

thorities  in  order  to  obtain  formal  guarantees

that is beginning to be seen against one or other po-

that they will not resort to an internet shutdown

litical camp or individuals.

and  will  instead  commit  to  promoting  the  pro-

Finally, no law has been adopted to compensate

duction and dissemination of correct and verified

people  who  are  victims  of  false  information  on  so-

information as the best method to fight against

cial  media,  or  any  other  platform. The  only  related

rumours and false information.

legislation  is  the  Penal  Code,21  which  prohibits  an

•  Advocate  for  people’s  representatives  to  pass

individual from knowingly spreading false informa-

laws penalising the creators of false information.

tion  that  is  likely  to  alarm  the  public,  worry  them,

•  Advocate  for  the  government  and  national  as-

or to provoke them against the established powers.

sembly to ratify the African Union convention on

However,  it  is  not  clear  how  to  determine  what  is

cybercrime.

considered false information.

As a result of these legal deficiencies, the Con-

golese authorities could use existing laws, like the

Penal  Code,  if  they  want  to  justify  internet  shut-

downs.  “The  only  weapon  left  in  the  hands  of  the

government will be the internet shutdown, which is

a violation of the freedom of the press, expression

and information rights,” Bisimwa said.22

20  Sabbe, B. (2022, 1 February). Grievances, Governance and Gold in

the Eastern DRC.  IPIS. https://ipisresearch.be/weekly-briefing/

ipis-briefing-december-2021-january-2022-grievances-governance-

and-gold-in-the-eastern-drc

21  https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/text/194348

22  Interview with Serge Bisimwa, chief editor of the Internews DRC

fact-checking desk, on 3 February 2022.

108  /  Global Information Society Watch

COSTA RICA

ROBOTICS AND AI DURING THE PANDEMIC: THE FUTURE OF

AUTOMATED JOBS IN COSTA RICA

Costa Rica is still considered one of the most sol-

Technische Universität München

Yawri Carr

id democracies in the Americas.4 In the 1990s it was

even recognised as one of the most just and equal

countries, with one with the highest levels of human

development globally.5 Nevertheless, over the years,

concerns have been raised over the country’s steady

Introduction

increase  in  socioeconomic  inequalities.  By  2018

Many  countries  are  turning  into  highly  technolo-

Costa Rica was considered the eighth most unequal

gy-driven  and  digitised  societies  due  to  the  COVID-19

country in the region – and by 2020, due to the COV-

pandemic. While Costa Rica is no exception, it raises the

ID-19 pandemic, this inequality had worsened.6

issue of how robots and artificial intelligence (AI) are be-

The internet has played a fundamental role in ac-

ing used in a way that will impact on the future of work.

tivities such as remote work and education, but it is

This  shift  to  automated  processes  and  autono-

not the only technology used during these difficult

mous systems is being experienced more and more

times: the use of automation as well as AI has also

in our daily lives. Intelligent systems are making de-

been growing around the world.7

cisions for us and shaping the way society interacts

One  definition  of  automation  –  written  in  the

with and perceives technology.

middle of the 20th century – defines it as the “me-

Although there have been various debates recent-

chanical combination of numerous operations while

ly on violations of digital rights, many in civil society

adding  controls  in  order  to  automatically  generate

are  still  concerned  about  the  lack  of  recognition  of

a  product.”8  Since  then  the  use  of  the  term  “out-

certain fundamental rights nationally, and also in the

put”  has  been  preferred  over  “product”,  but  it  is

regional human rights tribunal. Moreover, the shift to

nevertheless  important  to  establish  that  unlike  AI,

a future of automated and autonomous systems also

automation  does  not  imply  “intelligence”,  but  is

affects how digital rights advocacy should act, and the

about executing an operation automatically.9

issues  that  should  be  considered  important.  In  this

Costa Rica’s first signs of automation impacting

sense, these new challenges require collective action,

on the kinds of work available for people could be

including the development and revision of public poli-

seen in simple ways such as the progressive auto-

cy and laws, and the strengthening of institutions.

mation of the job of a security guard in a parking lot.

Nowadays, in many shopping centres, machines and

From tourism and agriculture to a future built

booms control the entry and exit of cars from parking

on automation and autonomous systems

lots and no human operator is required to do this.

Costa  Rica  is  a  country  located  in  Central  America

that bases its economic activities mainly on tourism,

4  OEA. (2022, 8 February).  Misión de la OEA saluda al pueblo

agriculture  (coffee,  pineapples  and  bananas)  and

costarricense tras la exitosa jornada electoral del 6 de febrero.

https://www.oas.org/es/centro_noticias/comunicado_prensa.

some  industrial  activity  that  includes  the  manufac-

asp?sCodigo=C-005%2F22

turing  of  computer  chips.1  It  is  a  country  with  just

5  Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo. (1991).

over five million people,2 with one of the highest lev-

Desarrollo Humano Informe 1991. https://hdr.undp.org/sites/

els of internet coverage in Latin America.

default/files/hdr_1991_es_completo_nostats.pdf

3

6  Muñoz, D. (2022, 23 February). Costa Rica avanza sin freno hacia

una sociedad cada vez más desigual.  Semanario Universidad.

https://semanariouniversidad.com/pais/costa-rica-avanza-sin-

1  Rodríguez, Ó. (2021, 22 July). Demanda global de ‘chips’ impulsa

freno-hacia-una-sociedad-cada-vez-mas-desigual

a Intel a doblar su apuesta por Costa Rica.  El Economista. https://

7  Chamola, V., Hassija, V., Gupta, V., & Guizani, M. (2020). A

www.eleconomista.net/tendencias/Demanda-global-de-chips-

Comprehensive Review of the COVID-19 Pandemic and the Role of

impulsa-a-Intel-a-doblar-su-apuesta-por-Costa-Rica-20210722-0020.

IoT, Drones, AI, Blockchain, and 5G in Managing Its Impact.  IEEE

html

Access, 8, 90225-90265. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.

2  https://datos.bancomundial.org/indicator/SP.POP.

jsp?tp=&arnumber=9086010

TOTL?end=2020&locations=CR&start=2020

8  Harrington, D. F. (1958). Automation’s Impact on Industrial Safety.

3  Rojas, E., Poveda, L., & Grimblatt, N. (2016).  Estado de la banda

Cleveland State Law Review, 7(2).

ancha en América Latina y el Caribe 2016. CEPAL. https://www.

9  Defense Science Board. (2016).  Summer Study on Autonomy.  Office

cepal.org/es/publicaciones/40528-estado-la-banda-ancha-america-

of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and

latina-caribe-2016

Logistics. https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=794641

COSTA RICA / 109

Automation eventually expanded into our notion

rapidly, mainly motivated by the critical necessities

of “autonomous systems”. Different to the phenom-

brought on by the coronavirus. Therefore, the ways

enon  of  automation,  an  autonomous  system  does

Costa Rica has been introducing automation and au-

not just work with minimum or no human interven-

tonomous systems in the context of COVID-19, how

tion, but also possess what we might call cognitive

this  has  impacted  current  employment  opportuni-

capacities, such as “intelligence” through the use of

ties and will impact the future of work, how this will

AI, and an “orientation” towards a goal, that are es-

introduce inequalities, and the role of digital rights

sential to the autonomy of the system.10

and civil society advocacy in this context are critical

But  what  makes  AI-driven  technology  differ-

questions.

ent  from  other  technologies  that  could  put  human

In light of the many deaths of health care person-

rights  at  risk?  AI  has  some  features  that  more  tra-

nel due to COVID-19 and their huge risk of exposure

ditional technologies do not. There is, for example,

to the virus on a daily basis,16 one of the first meas-

its level of autonomy, requiring less and less human

ures  implemented  in  Costa  Rica  was  telemedicine

intervention.  It  can  be  unpredictable,  because  it  is

in  various  forms.17  For  instance,  it  was  used  in  the

uncertain  what  action  a  machine  collecting  and

country for several applications: advising on medical

processing data will take. Finally, there is a lack of

procedures,  collecting  medical  data,  and  even  re-

transparency, as a person cannot clearly know why a

mote medical examinations.18 Robots were also used

specific decision or action was taken.

for disinfecting hospitals,19 as well as for security.20

During  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  countries  such

Robots  play  increasingly  more  decisive  roles

as  China  used  autonomous  systems  extensively  in

in  society,  including  when  the  cognitive  capacities

the form of AI to detect possible new infections, and

of  autonomous  systems  are  put  to  work  in  critical

robots for medical care and for disinfection.11 As dis-

moments of health care in which lives are at stake.

cussed below, similar developments have been seen

Last year, Costa Rica became the first Central Amer-

in Costa Rica.

ican  country  using  a  robot  to  guide  doctors  in  a

According  to  the  Inter-American  Development

knee-replacement operation.21 The doctors said that

Bank, 68% of jobs in Costa Rica could be replaced

in highly complex surgeries such as this, the robot

by robots.12 Robotics is considered the most impor-

was  able  to  work  with  more  precision,  resulting  in

tant trend within the life science and manufacturing

a quicker recovery for the patient.22 The use of AI in

sectors in Costa Rica, and 64% of companies in the

health  care,  as  suggested,  is  already  taking  place.

country say that they will adopt robotics processes

There  are  algorithms  that  interpret  data  through

in their enterprises.13 The country has the potential

sensors  and  produce  health  diaries  for  patients  in

to grow this field even more. By 2019, the number of

Costa  Rica,23  with  doctors  notified  about  changes

graduated professionals on mechanical and electri-

in  the  data.24  There  is  also  a  robot  that  prepares

cal engineering rose to 700.14

The rise of autonomous systems during

16  ElPais.cr. (2020, 23 October). Costa Rica reporta 13 fallecimientos

the pandemic

por Covid-19 entre personal médico de la CCSS.  ElPais.cr. https://

www.elpais.cr/2020/10/23/costa-rica-reporta-13-fallecimientos-

Different to highly automated countries such as Ja-

por-covid-19-entre-personal-medico-de-la-ccss

pan, Germany and China,15 Costa Rica does not have

17  CAF et al. (2020).  Las oportunidades de la digitalización en

América Latina frente al COVID-19. CAF & United Nations. https://

a solid foundation of using robots or AI as workers.

repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/45360/4/

However,  Costa  Rica  is  deploying  the  technologies

OportDigitalizaCovid-19_es.pdf

18  PAHO. (2020).  Asegurando la continuidad del tratamiento de

pacientes crónicos en tiempos de pandemia: Telesalud en Costa

10  Roff, H. M. (2019). Artificial Intelligence: Power to the People.  Ethics

Rica. https://www.paho.org/es/historias/asegurando-continuidad-

& International Affairs, 33(2), 127-140. https://doi.org/10.1017/

tratamiento-pacientes-cronicos-tiempos-pandemia-telesalud-costa

S0892679419000121

19  Rodríguez, I. (2021, 12 February). Llega a Costa Rica robot que promete

11  Toh, M., & Wang, S. (2020, 24 February). Drones. Disinfecting

‘destruir’ virus causante de covid-19.  La Nación. https://www.nacion.

robots. Supercomputers. The coronavirus outbreak is a test for

com/ciencia/salud/llega-a-costa-rica-robot-que-promete-destruir/

China’s tech industry.  CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/23/

N2ECJVF67NADTN46TVGVXF42QQ/story

tech/china-tech-coronavirus-outbreak/index.html.

20  Ibid.

12  Ripani, L., Kugler, A., Kugler, M., Soler, N., & Rodrigo, R. (2020).  El

21  de la Cruz, A. (2021, 18 June). Robot asiste a ortopedistas en cirugía

Futuro del Trabajo en América Latina y el Caribe: ¿ Cuál es el impacto

de reemplazo de rodilla.  CCSS Noticias. https://www.ccss.sa.cr/

de la automatización en el empleo y los salarios?, p. 13.  Banco

noticias/salud_noticia?robot-asiste-a-ortopedistas-en-cirugia-de-

Interamericano de Desarrollo. https://doi.org/10.18235/0002960

reemplazo-de-rodilla

13  https://www.cinde.org/es/tecnologias/robotica#hero

22  Jerez, M. (2021, 18 June). Robot guía a médicos en cirugía de rodilla:

14  Ibid.

CCSS es pionera en Centroamérica.  AM Prensa. https://amprensa.

15  International Federation of Robotics. (2021, 27 January). Robot

com/2021/06/video-robot-guia-a-medicos-en-cirugia-de-rodilla-

Race: The World‘s Top 10 automated countries. https://ifr.org/

ccss-es-pionera-en-centroamerica

ifr-press-releases/news/robot-race-the-worlds-top-10-automated-

23  https://www.cinde.org/es/tecnologias/ia-machine-learning

countries

24  Ibid.

110  /  Global Information Society Watch

your  medical  prescriptions  in  less  than  one  min-

The role of civil society

ute,  including  how  and  when  the  medicine  should

In terms of legislation, the country presents several

be taken, increasing efficiency, reducing costs, and

challenges that need to be tackled in order to man-

avoiding  human  flaws.  These  are  just  examples  of

age science and technology responsibly. AI, robotics

the  current,  emerging  narrative  about  automated

and other autonomous systems use large amounts

and autonomous systems working in health care in

of data in order to work.32 Given all the recent devel-

the country.25

opments, civil society priorities in Costa Rica should

Rising inequalities and human rights at stake

shift to address the new challenges and in a way that

addresses  the  shifting  relationship  between  tech-

Automation has also been introduced into tourism,

nology and society. The country still lacks the policy,

one  of  the  most  important  economic  activities  in

legal and practical mechanisms that are required in

Costa Rica. Some of the most tangible cases can be

order to tackle the challenges that these new tech-

seen  in  the  Chorotega  region,  where  many  of  the

nologies introduce.

most visited beaches and resorts are located.26 This

There  is  a  need  to  advocate  for  an  AI  strategy

region suffered hugely due to the pandemic, going

in  the  country.  The  AI  strategy  recently  approved

from the second most prosperous region in 2019 to

in  Brazil33  provides  a  good  model  that  might  be

the second poorest by 2020, which means that pov-

suitable  for  Costa  Rica.  Brazil’s  strategy  is  prin-

erty increased by 52%.27 Nowadays, lots of hotels do

ciple-based  and  risk-based  regulation.  Applying

not need personnel at reception, because there is an

a  similar  one  in  Costa  Rica  would  help  the  coun-

automated machine process that registers guests.28

try  contextualise  the  implementation  of  the

While  automation  and  autonomous  systems

technologies in a concrete way, establishing direct-

provide advantages such as not getting infected by

ly  responsibilities,  including  who  will  coordinate

diseases  nor  needing  social  security,  three  of  four

their implementation, what goals need to be meet,

jobs in Latin America could be replaced by robots.29

and how long it should take to accomplish a goal,

Nonetheless, since human personnel in the region is

with details such as how implementation will hap-

cheap, it could still be better for some to stick with

pen, and the financial costs.

cheap human labour than to buy expensive robots.30

Further,  in  a  datafied  society,  other  policies

People under poverty have been the most affected,

should  be  taken  into  consideration.  Even  though

as they cannot work from home nor do they have the

access to public information is contemplated under

necessary  education  to  work  on  new  technological

articles  11,  27  and  30  of  the  Costa  Rican  constitu-

innovations.31

tion,34 civil society has revealed that institutions do

However,  technological  advancements  cannot

not  comply  with  information  requested.35  The  lack

and  should  not  be  stopped.  The  negative  impacts

of a specific law on access to information has made

of  the  pandemic  could  also  be  more  serious  if  we

it very hard for transparency and accountability, be-

did not have access to the internet and other tech-

cause there was not a legitimate procedure to follow

nologies  that  have  helped  us  in  numerous  ways.

when  asking  for  relevant  public  information,  nor

Nevertheless,  risks  to  human  rights  are  latent,

a  body  that  ensured  it. Therefore,  civil  society  has

meaning  responsible  innovation  research  is  neces-

demanded  a  law  for  accessing  public  information,

sary.  The  most  significant  question  for  an  already

not just creating the legal framework for institutions

unequal country is how to advance technological de-

to  do  this  as  the  constitution  already  establishes,

velopment while leaving no one behind.

but  actually  making  it  mandatory,  with  sanctions

to  those  public  officials  who  deny  information  re-

25  La Republica. (2020, 17 November). Meditek pone a disposición robots

quests.36 It was not until May 2022 that the first law

para potenciar las farmacias inteligentes en Costa Rica.  La Republica.

https://www.larepublica.net/noticia/meditek-pone-a-disposicion-

robots-para-potenciar-las-farmacias-inteligentes-en-costa-rica

26  Fernández Aráuz, A. (2021).  Desempleo, pobreza y desigualdad en

32  https://www.sas.com/es_cl/insights/analytics/what-is-artificial-

Costa Rica durante la pandemia por el COVID-19: Consideraciones

intelligence.html

para una recuperación resiliente. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.

33  Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações.

https://www.kas.de/es/web/costa-rica/einzeltitel/-/content/

(2021).  Estrategia Brasileira de Inteligencia Artificial. https://

desempleo-pobreza-y-desigualdad-en-costa-rica-durante-la-

www.gov.br/mcti/pt-br/acompanhe-o-mcti/transformacaodigital/

pandemia-por-el-covid-19

arquivosinteligenciaartificial/ebia-diagramacao_4-979_2021.pdf

27  Ibid.

34  http://www.pgrweb.go.cr/scij/Busqueda/Normativa/Normas/

28  Ibid.

nrm_texto_completo.aspx?nValor1=1&nValor2=871

29  Ibid.

35  Abriendo Datos, et al. (2021, 28 September).

30  Ibid.

Bicentenario sin derecho pleno de acceso a la

31  Lustig, N., & Tommasi, M. (2020). El COVID-19 y la protección social

información.  Delfino. https://delfino.cr/2021/09/

de los grupos pobres y vulnerables en América Latina: un marco

bicentenario-sin-derecho-pleno-de-acceso-a-la-informacion

conceptual.  Revista CEPAL, 132, 283-295.

36  Ibid.

COSTA RICA / 111

of this kind was approved in Costa Rica.37 Neverthe-

and  new  technologies,  nor  creating  education  and

less, the law is still the subject of discussion within

training plans for professionals and users. Capacity

civil society, as it still does not establish an explicit

building should instead be an integral process that

obligation for the exercise of the right to access in-

unpacks  the  relationship  between  the  deployment

formation, beside others. From now on, the role of

of technology and its impacts and consequences on

civil  society  will  be  to  keep  on  demanding  this,  as

society. A better understanding among stakeholders

well as becoming very vigilant about the law’s appli-

when addressing the needs of the country’s AI-driv-

cation, because it is fundamental for a transparent

en future would make debates and discussions more

and accountable deployment of robotics and AI.

meaningful.

Finally, the data protection agency in the coun-

Building private-public alliances to deal with this

try  is  also  very  weak.  It  only  responded  to  one  of

future  is  also  fundamental.  Businesses,  entrepre-

236  complaints  received  in  2020.38  At  the  same

neurs and academics are advancing quickly in terms

time, there is not a law against discrimination in the

of  developing  innovations,  but  the  public  arena  is

country  that  could  also  tackle  biases  that  technol-

staying behind, not seeming to understand what is

ogies  generate.  In  telemedicine,  data  security  and

going on.

confidentiality in information systems must also be

At  the  same  time,  the  development  and  review

widely improved.39

of  laws,  as  well  as  the  reform  of  institutions,  such

as  the  data  protection  agency  that  has  not  been

Conclusions

efficient  nor  protective  of  citizen  rights,  needs  to

This  report  shows  a  country  that  once  was  really

happen urgently. The future of work must be respon-

prosperous  and  that  had  really  strong  institutions

sibly built.

that  were  guided  by  the  rule  of  law  and  that  pro-

tected  the  digital  rights  of  its  citizens  extensively,

Action steps

despite  the  absence  of  the  laws  mentioned  above.

The following action steps are proposed:

However,  Costa  Rica  has  been  experiencing  alarm-

•  Organise  meetings  with  different  stakeholders

ing levels of increasing inequality that should really

for advocating the creation of a principles-based

worry its citizens.

AI strategy.

In  a  country  in  which  automation  and  auton-

•  Monitor  the  needed  reform  of  the  data  protec-

omous  systems  are  a  new  concept,  but  where

tion agency so that it is efficient and attends to

their  use  is  growing  in  many  fields  of  the  working

every complaint effectively.

environment, it is fundamental that civil society or-

ganises to understand these new challenges and to

•  Increase  transparency  and  accountability

advocate for possible solutions. It is also necessary

through  the  new  law  on  access  to  public  infor-

that  opportunities  are  created  for  all  stakeholders

mation, explicitly including the obligation to do

to  understand  and  prepare  for  this  changing  and

so, so that it is effective in practice.

dynamic  field,  including  policy  makers,  business

•  Approve a non-discrimination law that can also

leaders and academics. Costa Rica still has to face

deal with biases produced by new technologies

many challenges in order to take advantage of the

using AI, as well as those biases that affect the

opportunities  offered  by  telemedicine  and  other

dynamics of workers and their recruitment.

new  technological  processes.  To  advance  in  these

•  Provide training for people whose jobs are being

areas it is necessary to strengthen training and ad-

automated  or  are  likely  to  be  in  the  future,  so

ministrative processes, and build capacity in the use

that they can build their capacity to be employa-

of  robotics  and  information  technology.  It  should

ble in the new market.

not  just  be  about  providing  access  to  the  internet

37  Madrigal, L. M. (2022, 27 April). Nueva ley de acceso a información

pública reduce a la mitad plazo de respuesta de instituciones

públicas.  Delfino. https://delfino.cr/2022/04/nueva-ley-de-acceso-

a-informacion-publica-reduce-a-la-mitad-plazo-de-respuesta-de-

instituciones-publicas

38  Ruiz, G. (2021, 12 May). Prodhab tarda de diez meses a un año

en resolver denuncias.  CRHoy.com. https://www.crhoy.com/

nacionales/miercoles-prodhab-tarda-de-diez-meses-a-un-ano-en-

resolver-denuncias

39  Valerio, M. (2020, 14 September). Costarricenses podrán conocer

más acerca de la telemedicina y sus beneficios.  SINART Costa Rica

Medios. https://costaricamedios.cr/2020/09/14/costarricenses-

podran-conocer-mas-acerca-de-la-telemedicina-y-sus-beneficios

112  /  Global Information Society Watch

COSTA RICA

“WE ALL PREFER TO SEE EACH OTHER IN PERSON”:

GIRLS, THE PANDEMIC AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES

This same report shows that half of the students

Cooperativa Sulá Batsú

Kemly Camacho

in the country during the pandemic did not have the

https://www.sulabatsu.com

opportunity  to  adequately  receive  an  online  or  hy-

brid education as a result of connectivity problems

(either  a  lack  of  access  or  poor  signal  quality)  or

because their families did not have access to digital

Introduction

devices.

This report is a summary of the progress of research

This situation aggravates the exclusion of young

carried  out  by  the  Sulá  Batsú  Cooperative  in  Costa

people  with  fewer  resources,  since  private  educa-

Rica and Central America on girls, the pandemic and

tion  continued  to  develop  over  this  same  period,

digital technologies. Since 2013, the Cooperative has

widening  the  conditions  of  inequality  for  the  new

been  working  on  foregrounding  the  concerns  and

generations. This  occurred  despite  the  principle  of

proposals of girls aged 10 to 18 years in the Central

universalisation  and  compulsory  education  that  is

American  region  within  the  broader  process  of  the

established  in  the  country’s  constitution.  In  Costa

social appropriation of digital tools.

Rica, eight out of 10 boys and girls complete primary

education, only 60% complete secondary education,

Context

and only 8% complete higher education.

The State of Education of Costa Rica in 2021 report1

We  have,  at  the  Cooperative,  been  interested

classifies the last four years as an “educational black-

in  how  this  context  affects  girls,  and  in  this  report

out”. This is not only due to the consequences of the

we  discuss  the  concerns  and  proposals  for  a  more

pandemic on preschool, primary and secondary ed-

meaningful  use  of  the  internet  in  the  country  that

ucation, but also because prior to the health crisis,

they themselves have raised.

the  deprioritisation  of  quality  education  implied  a

Before  detailing  the  results  of  this  qualitative

substantive  setback  in  the  educational  process  for

work  and  with  the  purpose  of  giving  a  little  more

many young people, to the point that Costa Rica be-

context,  some  relevant  characteristics  of  girls  from

came a regional example of stagnating educational

six  to  12  years  old  in  Costa  Rica  are  presented

standards.

in Table 1.

TABLE 1.

General characteristics of girls aged 6 to 12 in Costa Rica

Percentage of girls

Characteristic

aged 6 to 12

Are studying

98.6%

Have social security insurance

92%

Live in urban areas

71%

Have functional difficulties

19,2%

Are physically punished

50%

Have parents or guardians who consider it correct to physically punish their daughters

24%

Do unpaid chores at home (28 hours per month)

71.4%

Do paid chores for the family

5%

Poor and very poor households with at least one girl

48.7%

No one takes care of them

1.4%

Source: INEC, 2018-2022

1  https://programatic-as.com/la-voz-de-las-chicas-del-centro-de-america

COSTA RICA / 113

From these data, it should be noted that the ma-

with  digital  tools,  like  rude  memes.  They  are  also

jority of girls are enrolled in the school and college

more interested in online sports than we are.

system,  but  a  majority  must  dedicate  a  significant

We  don’t  like  this  kind  of  humour  so  much,  or

part  of  their  time  to  housework.  In  addition,  many

video games. We use more WhatsApp to talk to each

girls live in conditions of poverty and extreme pover-

other. When we were younger, we wanted to be You-

ty, and at least half receive physical punishment as a

Tubers; now we are more interested in TikTok.

form of discipline.

The internet seems to me to be very important

for life because of the information part, but it wor-

The role of the internet for girls during

ries me because of the addictive issue. We all know

the pandemic

that there is that danger, but we like it a lot. I try to

We  conducted  a  series  of  open  interviews  with  10

do other things outside of the connection to avoid

girls – five from rural areas and five from urban ar-

addiction.

eas  –  in  relation  to  the  role  of  the  internet  in  their

After  the  pandemic,  the  class  became  much

lives  during  this  period  of  “educational  blackout”.

more  aggressive,  especially  the  boys  who  became

The girls were all aged 10 to 12 years old. This work

more violent. They fight constantly, and it’s becom-

has been complemented by a discussion of two case

ing second nature. We also notice that the children

studies that are part of a series of case studies on the

in the smaller classes are also more aggressive than

use of the internet for the development of activities

before the pandemic. We believe that it is because of

outside the school environment by young people.

the content they see on the internet, especially vid-

In this report, the anonymity of the girls is main-

eo games and videos in general.

tained. To this end, profiles are established based on

the common elements that have emerged from the

Profile built from interviews with rural girls

analysis of the conversations. These have been writ-

We  take  most  of  the  classes  through  guides  that

ten from the voice and perspective of the girls.

we  receive  and  send  over  the  internet. We  studied

like this during the pandemic because the internet

Profile built from interviews with urban girls

connection was not good in the places where we live

We had a short interruption of classes for a few weeks,

and we had classmates who did not have internet.

but later everything was reorganised and we began to

We connected once or twice a week, but it was very

receive virtual classes. At first it was very strange to

difficult  because  there  were  many  differences  be-

get used to this new way of having lessons. However,

tween the classes and it became very complicated.

very quickly we began to see it as normal.

We also used it to do our own research and comple-

Even  other  activities  in  which  we  participated

ment the studies when we had a connection.

such as sports, arts, languages, began to be done

The biggest issue was access and signal quality,

virtually. We left off a lot of these extra activities be-

even more so than whether or not we had a device.

cause they weren’t pretty online. But we made new

Even if it was with the mobile phones of our fathers

friends on the internet during the pandemic because

or  mothers,  we  communicated  by  WhatsApp.  We

after school – for fun – we stayed playing in groups

made  many  efforts  to  connect,  such  as  walking  to

of four or five.

look for a signal wherever it was, borrowing a sig-

We can say that there was a difference within the

nal from neighbours, buying a plan when possible.

class depending on the internet because some had a

Teachers  also  made  many  efforts  –  for  example,

poorer connection and therefore could not do the same

some  made  individual  calls  to  follow  up  with  stu-

activities as the rest, both in class and outside of it.

dents who were unable to connect.

In addition to playing, we did extra activities that

We noticed that the boys tried to connect to the

we liked, such as taking online courses to learn new

classes less than the girls. We always made more ef-

things according to the tastes of each one. We still

fort  to  comply. They  lost  interest  faster  whether  or

like to take these courses.

not they had connectivity. But all of us prefer face-to-

We  used  the  internet  much  more  intensively

face classes much more.

during  the  pandemic  than  before,  but  we  have  de-

For fun, we use the internet sometimes when we

creased its use again now that we are back in person

can, but mainly to do things by ourselves, such as

because we have less time to use the internet. We all

play games or watch a video or listen to music, but

feel  more  comfortable  with  face-to-face  interaction

not to do things together.

than virtual because we have more direct contact.

During the pandemic, we were able to do a lot of

Boys  use  the  internet  more  than  us  even  now

things outside – we weren’t as cooped up. For exam-

that we’re back in school. They use black humour a

ple, going to the river, helping my grandmother with

lot – it’s very rude to relate to – and they build jokes

the  gardens,  helping  with  the  animals,  working  in

114  /  Global Information Society Watch

the fields with my family, going to visit close family,

dedicated to social and community work using street

playing with my brothers, sisters, cousins. We didn’t

art and popular sports.

feel very isolated because we could do things out-

They  indicated  that  online  social  networking  is

side. We believe that we learned a lot by doing these

useful for them because it allows the work they do

things  and  that  we  do  less  when  going  to  school,

to be seen. “We are the leaders, but we don’t always

because we have less time there. We interacted with

have  money.  We  use  social  networks  to  generate

many people from the same family.

our  resources  from  the  dissemination  of  our  work.

The internet made a difference between those of

We create contacts and alliances little by little, and

us who could connect and those of us who couldn’t.

we get them to support the work we do,” said Ester

We believe that it is our right to have access to the

Salazar, a member of the collective.

internet no matter where we live. We should all be

During the pandemic, they used the internet to

able to study quietly with connectivity.

encourage people to help create “dignified packag-

es”  that  were  used  to  support  families  in  greatest

Two case studies on the appropriation

difficulty in Jocotenango, where they work. “Through

of the internet by girls and young women

this campaign we managed to distribute packages to

in the pandemic

many families. We collected things and distributed

In addition to the analysis of the role of the internet

them with our bicycles,” Salazar said.

in the educational process of girls, case studies on

“Thanks  to  this  process  we  were  able  to  break

internet use for self-organisation by girls and young

stereotypes about everything that young women can

women  during  the  pandemic  were  also  developed.

do  when  we  organise  ourselves  and  use  the  inter-

Two of these cases studies were developed in Nicara-

net to do things that come from our hearts. We work

gua and Guatemala, with both processes supported

against stereotypes and against the system. It also

by our Sulá Batsú Cooperative. For the development

helped us to work collectively,” she said.

of the case studies, a review of digital resources was

made and a public forum was held with the partici-

Conclusions

pation of the young female leaders.

It is urgent to listen to girls and young women. They

have  particular  situations  determined  by  their  age

Case 1: Colectivo Tonantzin, Nicaragua

and gender that are decisive for the construction of

This  is  a  group  of  girls  and  adolescents  (10  to  18

local actions and the definition of public policies. It

years old) that emerged from a training programme

is  urgent  to  build  proposals  based  on  their  condi-

in  the  safe  use  of  digital  technologies  led  by  Sulá

tions,  always  listening  to  their  voices  and  building

Batsú  for  Central  America.  They  belong  to  an  art

processes with them, where they are truly involved.

group dedicated to engraving. During the pandemic,

It was already known that the difference in qual-

their families saw job opportunities greatly reduced

ity  internet  access  was  substantial  between  rural

with the economic consequences that this implies.

girls and urban girls. This was confirmed once again

They decided to organise themselves to sell their

in the profiles that we developed through our work.

prints  digitally.  They  carried  out  various  online  sales

However, it is important to appreciate the different

campaigns  and  managed  not  only  to  generate  their

strategies used by rural and urban girls to deal with

own income for the group and their families, but also to

the pandemic.

position themselves  nationally and internationally as

Urban girls turned to the internet to get through

artists. With this leap through using the internet, they

the  pandemic,  not  only  studying  with  greater  ease

strengthened themselves as organised young women

online, but also getting together to play games with

and consolidated the organisation of their collective.

their friends and taking extra courses available online

“Belonging to the collective and having managed

on topics that interested them. Several extra class ac-

to sell our art nationally and internationally through

tivities that they organised also took place online.

the internet and help our families has allowed us to

Rural girls were less confined and many of their

strengthen ourselves as young women and believe

activities were able to continue in open spaces. They

in ourselves,” said Julieth Valle, a member of Colec-

learned new things through their family interactions

tivo Tonantzin, in an interview.

and  being  outside.  Despite  the  fact  that  they  were

not able to complete their formal education in good

Case 2: Colectivo Bats, Guatemala

conditions – and despite the multiple efforts of their

Colectivo  Bats  is  a  group  of  mostly  young  women,

teachers – they did not stop learning. These learn-

aged 12 to 19, led by one of our female leaders from

ings that took place in their rural environments, and

Guatemala. The group has the motto “We are and we

through  interacting  with  their  families  and  other

have the strength of the volcanoes.” The collective is

children close to them in the communities, are not

COSTA RICA / 115

properly  acknowledged  as  part  of  their  education

During  the  pandemic  they  have  lived  in  and

over the past two years.

transformed their digital world based on their age,

It is also very important to acknowledge the in-

where  they  live,  and  gender.  These  experiences

novative social uses of digital technologies by girls

should  not  be  underestimated  in  the  construction

and  young  women,  as  briefly  described  in  the  two

of educational policies, and other policies impacting

case studies presented. As shown, girls and young

on children’s rights and community actions. Contact

women launched exceptional initiatives using the in-

with  digital  technologies  and  the  differences  that

ternet. It is necessary to encourage these uses: the

this produced in their lives has not left them indif-

internet allowed them to organise, empower them-

ferent to the potential of these technologies to bring

selves and support their families and communities.

about change.

The  encouragement  of  these  uses  of  digital  tools

From  their  point  of  view,  girls  and  boys  have

should be part of the educational processes of girls.

different  uses  of  digital  technologies.  They  link  an

Girls identified differentiated uses of digital tech-

increase  in  aggressiveness  among  their  peers  with

nologies compared to boys, both in rural and urban

access to digital technologies and the internet and

areas. It is urgent to pay attention to these differenc-

how it is used. It is essential to analyse this percep-

es, analyse them and determine if any interventions

tion in greater depth so that it can inform public and

are necessary to ensure that young people’s interac-

educational decisions.

tion with the internet is healthy and productive.

Our Cooperative will continue working with the

girls, especially in relation to their use of the inter-

Recommendations and action steps

net,  to  1)  position  their  voice,  2)  strengthen  them,

It is essential to give girls a voice in the construction

and 3) encourage initiatives where they can support

of  digital  strategies  so  that  they  can  influence  the

themselves,  their  families  and  communities,  be-

exercise of digital rights.

cause this potential interests them very much.

116  /  Global Information Society Watch

CUBA

INTERNET ACCESS AS A NEW ENGINE FOR SOCIAL

MOBILISATION IN CUBA

the  equivalent  of  USD  4.5  per  hour  for  using  the

RedesAyuda

David Aragort

internet3 – an extremely high price considering the

https://redesayuda.org/

average monthly salary in Cuba.

In 2015, as a result of the rapprochement between

the  government  of  Barack  Obama  and  the  Cuban  re-

gime,  and  the  latter’s  promises  to  improve  internet

Introduction

access for citizens, the decision was made to tempo-

In recent years, Cuba has experienced a progressive ex-

rarily  reduce  prices  in  these  internet  cafés  by  more

pansion of internet access among its citizens, partially

than 50%.4 While this was a significant improvement,

motivated by economic reasons. However, the connec-

it was still prohibitive for most Cubans. That same year,

tion with the rest of the world has caused deep changes

the regime announced its plans to establish 35 Wi-Fi

in society, and has presented a great challenge for its

hotspots  in  public  spaces  on  the  island.5  In  2016,  a

rulers, who have historically relied on censorship and

spokesperson for the Empresa de Telecomunicaciones

isolation to maintain control and power. With greater

de Cuba (ETECSA), the state company that maintains

access to information, people have been able to ques-

the  monopoly  of  telecommunications  in  the  coun-

tion the “truth” transmitted by the country’s traditional

try,  announced  plans  to  bring  broadband  internet  to

media and have also been able to compare their living

homes and businesses.6

conditions to those found in other countries.

The  most  significant  step  came  in  2018,  when

For this reason, the regime has tried to control the

ETECSA began offering its users internet connections

activities of its citizens on the internet through block-

on  their  mobile  phones  through  a  3G  network,  even

ing, filtering, throttling, new laws and threats. These,

though  this  service  continued  to  be  prohibitive  for

however, have not been enough to stop civil society

most of the country’s inhabitants, as mobile data pack-

organisations from connecting with a large diaspora

ages were priced at USD 7 for 600 MB and USD 30 for

that seeks political changes and an expansion of civil

4 GB.7 In 2019, another step in favour of internet access

rights and liberties in the country, turning the internet

was taken through the legalisation of private Wi-Fi net-

into one of the main triggers of the biggest demon-

works. However, the owners of these networks are not

strations that the country has seen in recent decades.

able to sell access to them, maintaining ETECSA’s tele-

The ground is now laid for a new era of activism

communications monopoly on the island.8 That same

on securing the right to internet access in the coun-

year, ETECSA began to operate its 4G/LTE network.9

try, largely due to the pro-democracy demonstrations

that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, calling

for humanitarian aid to enter the country, and for re-

3  Oppmann, P. (2013, 6 August). Internet access now a reality for

some Cubans, but not cheap at $4.50 an hour.  CNN. https://edition.

gime change.

cnn.com/2013/08/05/world/americas/cuba-online-access

4  Associated Press. (2015, 18 February). Cuba Cuts the Price of

Internet access in Cuba:

Internet Access.  NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/

A story that has just begun

world/cuba-cuts-price-internet-access-n308591

5  Trotta, D. (2015, 18 June). Cuba to create first Wi-Fi signals for

Public access to the internet in Cuba is a relatively

the public at large.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/

recent  phenomenon.  It  was  not  until  2013  that  the

cuba-internet-idINKBN0OY2EY20150618

6  Weissenstein, M. (2016, 1 February). Cuba says it will launch

country had access to high-speed internet through

broadband home internet project.  Associated Press. https://

the  submarine  cable  ALBA-1,1  which  allows  down-

apnews.com/article/8d87e43964ab46d197289b257fbd3ff9

load speeds up to 3,000 times faster than those that

7  Reid, D. (2018, 5 December). Cuba to roll out mobile internet for the

first time.  CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/05/cuba-to-roll-

had  been  available  until  then.2 The  commissioning

out-mobile-internet-for-the-first-time.html

of ALBA-1 prompted the Cuban regime to open more

8  Marsh, S. (2019, 29 May). Cuba legalizes private Wi-Fi networks

than 100 internet cafés owned by the state, charging

in bid to boost connectivity.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/

article/us-cuba-internet/cuba-legalizes-private-wi-fi-networks-in-

bid-to-boost-connectivity-idUSKCN1SZ2UD

1  https://www.submarinecablemap.com/submarine-cable/alba-1

9  Cubadebate. (2019, 14 October). Cuba avanza en la habilitación de

2  Frank, M. (2013, 22 January). Cuba’s mystery fiber-optic Internet

la tecnología 4G/LTE.  Cubadebate. http://www.cubadebate.cu/

cable stirs to life.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/

noticias/2019/10/14/cuba-avanza-en-la-habilitacion-de-la-

us-cuba-internet-idUSBRE90L13020130122

tecnologia-4g-lte

CUBA / 117

A joint investigation between the organisations

internet.16 That same year, the European Parliament

CONNECTAS  and  YucaByte  argued  that  one  of  the

adopted a resolution in which it “calls on the Cuban

main reasons why the Cuban regime has been so in-

Government to stop imposing online censorship and

terested  in  increasing  internet  access  is  economic,

to stop blocking internet sites and restricting access

since  revenues  from  exports  of  “telecommunica-

to information.”17

tions,  transmission  and  supply  of  information”  are

among the main three categories of services exports

Pandemic, repression and social media

in the country, being only surpassed by those related

as a tool

to “social services and human health”10 and “accom-

The  advances  in  internet  connectivity  in  Cuba  oc-

modation, supply of food and beverages”. This can

curred before the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic.

be  explained  in  part  by  the  migration  of  approxi-

This meant that during the quarantine, Cubans had

mately 14% of the country’s total population, who, in

some  means  to  stay  connected  that  they  did  not

order to keep in communication with their relatives,

have previously. However, this caused the regime to

must send mobile top-ups from abroad to the state

increase its efforts to try to silence dissenting voic-

telecommunications monopoly ETECSA.11

es on digital platforms, both through the temporary

interruption of internet service to certain individuals

Censored almost from its inception

and through harassment and arbitrary arrests.18 The

In  addition  to  access  barriers  related  to  infrastruc-

internet  nevertheless  also  allowed  civil  society  or-

ture and connectivity, the internet in Cuba has been

ganisations and activists to show the reality of the

partially censored since its inception – a reality that

country  and  express  their  discontent  despite  not

is not limited to the internet, since almost all the tra-

being able to leave their homes. An example of this

ditional media are controlled by the state.12

was the case of Denis Solís, a rapper and member

It is known that since at least 2016, ETECSA has

of the San Isidro Movement who, days before being

been filtering text messages that contain some key-

arbitrarily  arrested  and  imprisoned,  broadcast  the

words  that  are  uncomfortable  for  the  regime,  such

moment in which an official harassed him inside his

as “freedom” or “human rights”.13 In 2017, an inves-

residence live on his Facebook account.19

tigation revealed that access to at least 41 websites

The  San  Isidro  Movement  is  a  group  of  Cuban

was being blocked from the Wi-Fi hotspots that Cuba

artists  and  intellectuals  who  fight  for  an  expan-

had installed in certain public spaces. These blocks

sion of civil rights and liberties in Cuba. Days after

were  mainly  aimed  at  independent  media  outlets

Solís’  arrest,  several  members  of  the  group  de-

and  pro-democracy  and  human  rights  websites.14

cided  to  start  a  hunger  and  thirst  strike  at  its

Two  years  later,  during  the  2019  constitutional

headquarters in Havana to demand the release of

referendum,  several  websites  belonging  to  inde-

their colleague, but the strike ended on the night

pendent  media  outlets  were  blocked.  In  this  case,

of  26  November  2020,  when  state  security  forces

the  evidence  showed  that  the  techniques  used  to

raided the headquarters and arrested them.20 While

block  the  websites  were  more  sophisticated  than

this  was  happening,  ETECSA  partially  blocked  ac-

those documented years before.15

cess  to  some  social  media  platforms  and  instant

In  2019,  the  regime  also  approved  Decree  Law

messaging  applications  such  as  Twitter,  YouTube

370, which was criticised by many civil society organ-

and WhatsApp. Just a few days later, a new partial

isations for representing a threat to freedoms on the

16  Access Now. (2020, 17 June). Statement: International support for the

petition to declare Decree-Law 370 unconstitutional in Cuba. https://

www.accessnow.org/statement-international-support-for-the-petition-

10  For example, in the past Venezuela and Cuba had an agreement

to-declare-decree-law-370-unconstitutional-in-cuba; Reporters Without where Venezuela had to pay with oil for the services of Cuban

Borders. (2020, 6 May). Cuba and its Decree Law 370: annihilating

doctors sent there.

freedom of expression on the Internet. https://rsf.org/en/news/

11  Borrero Batista, D. (2022, 2 February). ETECSA, el negocio cubano

cuba-and-its-decree-law-370-annihilating-freedom-expression-internet

inmune al embargo.  CONNECTAS. https://www.connectas.org/

17  European Parliament. (2019, 28 November). Resolution (EU)

etecsa-negocio-cubano-inmune-al-embargo

2019/2929 of 28 November 2019 on Cuba, the case of José Daniel

12  BBC News. (2018, 13 March). Cuba profile - Media.  BBC. https://

Ferrer. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/

www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-19578348

TA-9-2019-0073_EN.pdf

13  Frank, M. (2016, 5 September). Cuba government filtering mobile

18  Mattiace, T. (2020, 19 October). Cuba’s Government Targets Social

text messages, dissidents say.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/

Media Influencers.  Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/

article/us-cuba-censorship-idUSKCN11B265

news/2020/10/19/cubas-government-targets-social-media-

14  Xynou, M., Filastò, A., & Basso, S. (2017).  Measuring Internet

influencers

Censorship in Cuba’s ParkNets. OONI. https://ooni.org/post/

19  https://www.facebook.com/denis.solisgonzalez.5/videos/

cuba-internet-censorship-2017

790464094872551

15  Pérez Pujol, E., Filastò, A., & Xynou, M. (2019, 26 February). Cuba

20  BBC. (2020, 27 November). Cuban police raid HQ of dissident

blocks independent media amid 2019 constitutional referendum.

San Isidro Movement.  BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/

OONI. https://ooni.org/post/cuba-referendum

world-latin-america-55098876

118  /  Global Information Society Watch

blocking  of  Twitter  and  Facebook  was  reported,

internationally recognised Cuban artists and one of

coinciding with calls for demonstrations on the oc-

the  members  of  the  San  Isidro  Movement,  Maykel

casion of Human Rights Day.21

Osorbo.  It  quickly  went  viral  inside  and  outside  of

A month earlier, international organisations had

Cuba, becoming an anthem for the fight for human

made a public call to ETECSA and asked the compa-

rights and freedom in the country. The song won two

ny to guarantee internet access on the island, as well

Latin Grammy Awards, including Song of the Year;26

as to be transparent and explicit about the reasons

but  while  it  was  reaping  this  success,  Osorbo  was

behind the apparent blocking of Telegram and some

serving six months in prison after being arrested in

virtual private network (VPN) services, and to fix any

May 2021, accused of “resistance” and “contempt”.27

disruptions  that  could  be  affecting  the  quality  of

Opposition  political  activist  Manuel  Cuesta

service.22 However, over the following months, there

Morúa believes that one of the reasons why the re-

was an increase in reports of selective cuts of mobile

pression against Osorbo and others like him was so

phone and internet services for journalists and activ-

strong  is  because  “they  brought  together  [people

ists.23 This practice has apparently been increasing

from the] younger sectors and from the culture sec-

because, unlike the blocking of websites, it is harder

tor, where symbols, [a] new language and images are

to verify and has less collateral impact on the public

created that drive the intellectual debate of ideas.”28

in general.

Although there are no figures on the distribution of

internet use by age groups in Cuba, in 2021 people

2021, a turning point

between 18 and 34 years old made up more than half

The expansion of internet access made it possible to

of  adult  internet  users  globally.29  This  means  it  is

connect activists in Cuba with those who have had to

likely that young people are also the most active on

go into exile. This was evidenced by the #SOSCuba

the internet in Cuba.

campaign, which sought to pressure the Cuban re-

Before  the  demonstrations  of  July  2021,  there

gime into allowing humanitarian aid into the country

were at least two internet disruptions in Cuba in the

amid the health crisis that the province of Matanzas

same year. The first of them was partial and occurred

was going through due to the high increase in COV-

on 27 January 2021,30 coinciding with a demonstra-

ID-19 cases. As in many other provinces, its health

tion  called  by  a  group  of  artists  and  journalists

care centres had collapsed and there was a shortage

outside  the  Cuban  Ministry  of  Culture,31  while  the

of medicines, food and hygiene products.24

second took place on 12 February 2021 and, accord-

But the health crisis caused by the pandemic is

ing to ETECSA, was due to a “technical interruption”

not the only reason why discontent with the regime

that  affected  not  only  access  to  the  internet  but

has increased. According to the director of YucaByte,

all  of  the  country’s  international  communications

Norges  Rodríguez,  because  the  expansion  of  inter-

services.32

net access has meant that people who previously did

Knowing  the  history  of  internet  censorship  in

not have access to alternative sources of information

Cuba,  it  is  not  surprising  that  when  thousands  of

now have it, many citizens have begun to realise that

citizens  took  to  the  streets  across  the  country  to

the regime is largely to blame for the deep economic

crisis  that  has  been  exacerbated  by  the  pandemic,

rather than an “external enemy”, as the authorities

claim.

26  Reuters. (2021, 19 December). Cuba protest anthem ‘Patria y Vida’

25

wins Latin Grammy Song of the Year.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.

In  February  2021,  the  song  “Patria  y  Vida”

com/lifestyle/cuba-protest-anthem-patria-y-vida-wins-latin-

(Homeland  and  Life)  was  released,  which  featured

grammy-song-year-2021-11-19

27  Al Jazeera. (2021, 3 June). Cuba criticised over rapper jailed

for ‘resistance’.  Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/

news/2021/6/3/cuba-criticised-over-rapper-jailed-for-resistance

21  NetBlocks. (2020, 30 November). Social media disrupted in Cuba

28  Interview with the vice president of the Council for the Democratic

amid protests for artistic freedom. https://netblocks.org/reports/

Transition in Cuba, Manuel Cuesta Morúa, 10 February 2022.

social-media-disrupted-in-cuba-amid-protests-for-artistic-freedom-

29  https://www.statista.com/statistics/272365/age-distribution-

aAwrqa8M

of-internet-users-worldwide

22  Access Now. (2020, 5 November). Telegram blocked in Cuba?

30  Madory, D. [@dougmadory]. (2021, 27 January). According to @

Civil society demands answers. https://www.accessnow.org/

Kentikinc data, there was a significant drop in internet traffic

telegram-blocked-in-cuba-civil-society-demands-answers

from #Cuba today for a little more than two hours [tweet].  Twitter.

23  Committee to Protect Journalists. (2021, 4 March). Staff of Cuban

https://twitter.com/DougMadory/status/1354581571840389127

press freedom group ICLEP lose internet service, fear targeted

31  Committee to Protect Journalists. (2021, 29 January). Cuban internet

disruption. https://cpj.org/?p=86767

access cut amid free expression protest; journalist harassed.

24  EFE. (2021, 10 July). Crece la campaña para pedir un corredor

https://cpj.org/?p=79558

humanitario de ayuda a Cuba.  EFE. https://www.efe.com/efe/

32  Frank, M. (2021, 12 February). Cuba loses phone, internet

america/sociedad/crece-la-campana-para-pedir-un-corredor-

connections for about 90 minutes.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.

humanitario-de-ayuda-a-cuba/20000013-4583410

com/business/media-telecom/cuba-loses-phone-internet-

25  Interview with YucaByte director Norges Rodríguez, 3 February 2022.

connections-about-90-minutes-2021-02-12

CUBA / 119

demonstrate  on  11  July  2021,  the  response  was  to

“Psiphon” or “VPN”,42 and that same day the Unit-

block access to social media platforms and instant

ed States government announced that they would

messaging  applications  such  as  Facebook,  Insta-

evaluate alternatives to try to restore internet ac-

gram, WhatsApp, Telegram33 and Signal.34 However,

cess in Cuba.43

it  also  meant  that  this  time  Cubans  were  prepared

Less than a month after the demonstrations, the

to circumvent censorship using tools like VPNs. As

regime approved Decree Law 35, which establishes

a  result,  the  government  had  to  completely  cut  off

greater controls over the activities of Cubans on the

internet access throughout the country35 to stop the

internet  and  threatens  to  further  increase  censor-

spread of images and videos of the demonstrations

ship and self-censorship in the country.44 For Cuban

that were being broadcast and shared with the world

journalist Camila Acosta, this legislation is a way of

almost instantly.

intimidating people and, although to date no case is

While taking this measure, the regime was also

known in which it has been used, she says that the

calling on its supporters and security forces to con-

regime has used other mechanisms to fine citizens

front  protesters  in  the  streets,36  resulting  in  one

for criticism of the government, or even for sharing

person being killed and hundreds more detained.37

third-party content that criticises the government on

Months  later,  Cuba  acknowledged  having  detained

social media.45

and prosecuted more than 700 people, including 55

minors.38

Looking to the future

The disruptions and blockades continued dur-

Although  in  2021  the  political  change  that  the  citi-

ing  the  following  days39  and  evidence  was  found

zens  of  Cuba  expected  did  not  occur,  the  historic

that ETECSA may have tried to throttle the internet

demonstrations were a clear example of the potential

to prevent its effective use in the country.40 On 15

for transformation and mobilisation that the internet

July 2021, almost a million and a half users from

has in society and, therefore, the threat it represents

Cuba connected to the Psiphon network,41 a well-

to authoritarianism in Cuba in the long term.

known  free  VPN  provider.  In  response,  ETECSA

While  Venezuela,  Myanmar  and  more  recently

began filtering SMS containing keywords such as

Kazakhstan have shown that citizen mobilisation is

not the only element necessary to achieve a transi-

tion to democracy, in Cuba it did at least have some

impact.

Days  after  the  demonstrations,  the  regime  an-

33  NetBlocks. (2021, 12 July). Social media restricted in Cuba amid

widening anti-government protests. https://netblocks.org/reports/

nounced  a  temporary  lifting  of  some  restrictions

social-media-restricted-in-cuba-amid-widening-anti-government-

related  to  the  amount  of  food  and  medicine  that

protests-QAdrmwyl

travellers entering the country can carry.46 It also al-

34  Xynou, M., & Filastò, A. (2021, 21 October). How countries attempt

lowed the entry of humanitarian aid, although only

to block Signal Private Messenger App around the world.  OONI.

https://ooni.org/post/2021-how-signal-private-messenger-

from  allied  countries  such  as  Russia,  Mexico  and

blocked-around-the-world/#cuba

Bolivia.47

35  Madory, D. (2021, 16 July). Internet Disruptions in Cuba Following

Widespread Protests.  Kentik. https://www.kentik.com/analysis/

internet-disruptions-in-cuba-following-widespread-protests

36  Perrett, C. (2021, 12 July). Cuban President Miguel Díaz-Canel

called on supporters to fight in the streets as anti-government

42  14ymedio. (2021, 15 July). El monopolio cubano Etecsa censura

protests grow.  Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/

los SMS con las palabras “Psiphon” y “VPN”.  14ymedio. https://

cuban-president-fight-in-the-streets-amid-protests-2021-7

www.14ymedio.com/cuba/monopolio-cubano-Etecsa-censura-SMS-

37  Phillips, T., & Agustin, E. (2021, 13 July). Cuba protests: one

Psiphon-VPN_0_3131086865.html

man killed and more than 100 missing in historic unrest.  The

43  Shepardson, D. (2021, 15 July). U.S. reviewing whether it can help

Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/

restore internet access in Cuba -Biden.  Reuters. https://www.

cuba-protests-activists-journalists-protesters-detained

reuters.com/world/americas/us-reviewing-whether-it-can-help-

38  BBC. (2022, 26 January). Cuba says more than 700 charged over

restore-internet-access-cuba-2021-07-15

anti-government protests.  BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/

44  Marsh, S. (2021, 19 August). New Cuban decree tightens controls on

world-latin-america-60124600

social media, sparking outrage.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/

39  Madory, D. (2021, 17 July). Another Internet Disruption in Cuba

world/americas/new-cuban-decree-tightens-controls-social-media-

Following Week of Protests.  Kentik. https://www.kentik.com/

sparking-outrage-2021-08-18

analysis/another-internet-disruption-in-cuba-following-week-

45  Interview with Cubanet journalist and Havana correspondent for the

of-protests

ABC newspaper Camila Acosta, 7 February 2022.

40  Madory, D. [@dougmadory]. (2021, 4 August). Based on @kentikinc

46  Marsh, S., & Acosta, N. (2021, 15 July). Cuba lifts food, medicine

performance measurements to Cuba, there was increased latency

customs restrictions after protests.  Reuters. https://www.

and packet loss for three distinct periods in late July [tweet].  Twitter.

reuters.com/world/americas/cuba-lifts-food-medicine-customs-

https://twitter.com/DougMadory/status/1423067836826755078

restrictions-after-protests-2021-07-15

41  Psiphon Inc. [@psiphoninc]. (2021, 16 July). Update: Yesterday

47  Marsh, S. (2021, 30 July). Cuba receives food, medicine donations

1.389 Million daily unique users accessed the open web from Cuba

from allies to ease crisis.  Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/

through the Psiphon Network  [tweet].  Twitter. https://twitter.com/

americas/cuba-receives-food-medicine-donations-allies-ease-

PsiphonInc/status/1416069807301185537

crisis-2021-07-31

120  /  Global Information Society Watch

Cuban cyber activism has also not ceased. Proof

•  Donors  should  support  the  work  of  non-profit

of this is the call to boycott the San Remo Festival48

organisations  that  monitor  internet  censorship

that is being organised by the Cuban regime at the

in Cuba so that evidence of this censorship can

same time that it is carrying out mass trials against

be built.

hundreds  of  protesters,  and  also  the  international

•  Digital  rights  organisations  in  the  region  must

campaign in rejection of these trials.49

train grassroots activists and journalists in Cuba

Action steps

to circumvent internet censorship and collect ev-

idence of website and digital platform blocking

The following action steps need to be taken to sup-

using open tools like OONI Probe.50

port open access to the internet in Cuba:

•  Civil  society  organisations  must  continue  to

•  Democratic governments of the world must look

pressure multilateral organisations to reject cen-

for ways to encourage the expansion of internet

sorship and internet shutdowns as a method of

access  in  Cuba.  For  example,  this  can  be  done

repressing citizens across the world.

through conditioning trade agreements on a real

commitment  and  actions  by  the  Cuban  govern-

ment to provide reliable and quality access to its

citizens.

•  Civil society organisations outside of Cuba need

to  help  find  technical  alternatives  that  allow

keeping  access  to  the  internet  in  the  event  of

government censorship such as that seen in July

of  2021.  In  particular,  an  alternative  to  the  Psi-

phon network needs to be found so that access

is not limited to a single point of access, which

could be targeted by ETECSA.

48  Deutsche Welle. (2022, 10 January). Controversia política llega

al San Remo Music Awards Cuba.  Deutsche Welle. https://p.

dw.com/p/46mcy

49  Kurmanaev, A., & Lopez, O. (2022, 14 January). Mass Trials in Cuba

Deepen Its Harshest Crackdown in Decades.  The New York Times.

https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/14/world/americas/cuba-

mass-trials-crackdown.html

50  https://ooni.org

CUBA / 121

EL SALVADOR

DISINFORMATION DURING THE PANDEMIC: OPPORTUNITIES

FOR MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY IN EL SALVADOR

initiatives,  are  the  starting  point  for  implementing

HNL Consultores

José Roberto Amaya Valencia

MIL training and education on a larger scale, both in

the public and private spheres.

However, it is worth reflecting, as a first step, on

Introduction

the real need to bet on MIL training and education

as  a  solution  to  the  circulation  of  disinformation

The  enormous  amount  of  information  produced

and  misinformation,  the  difficulties  inherent  in  its

constantly in the context of the COVID-19 pandem-

implementation at scale, as well as the challenges

ic has travelled both online and through traditional

in promoting MIL training in the Salvadoran context.

media, similar to a tsunami, with reliable informa-

This report aims to address these questions.

tion and disinformation mixed together. The World

Health Organization baptised this phenomenon an

False information in El Salvador during

“infodemic”.1

the pandemic

To  combat  disinformation  in  the  long  term,  the

United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and  Cul-

One of the main problems in El Salvador is the ab-

tural  Organization  (UNESCO)  has  recommended

sence  of  a  public  educational  policy  on  MIL  that

that  states  invest  in  media  and  information  liter-

serves as a transversal axis for other policies. A re-

acy (MIL)2 programmes so that citizens are able to

view  of  different  official  study  programmes  of  the

search,  select,  evaluate,  synthesise  and  share  the

Ministry of Education yield few references to MIL –

information they encounter in a responsible way. In

and when references are made they are unclear, and

some  regions,  the  involvement  of  large  platforms

do not allow one to properly evaluate the intention

like  Facebook  in  MIL  programmes  is  evident.  How-

behind the inclusion of MIL in the curriculum.

ever, in other latitudes there is not only state apathy,

On  the  other  hand,  the  government’s  Digital

but  private  efforts,  in  most  cases,  are  small  initia-

Agenda  El  Salvador  2020-20303  includes  an  MIL

tives that do not reach the general public, the main

component,  but  there  are  no  indications  of  specific

target of these efforts.

long-term programmes to make it a reality and realise

In El Salvador, there is no specific public policy

the goals of the agenda. In fact, in some media inter-

that involves training or teaching MIL, beyond some

views,  the  Innovation  Secretariat  of  the  Presidency,

references  in  official  documents.  In  the  context  of

responsible  for  developing  the  Digital  Agenda,  re-

the pandemic, efforts to combat disinformation were

fers to MIL in extremely limited terms – more about

few and not necessarily focused on MIL.

improving “digital skills” and solving the problem of

Projects  that  have  been  deployed  to  combat

access to digital devices, than about promoting social

the  information  disorder,  such  as  fact-checking

practices facilitated by reading and writing.4

In this context, Salvadorans had to face the av-

alanche  of  information  that  the  pandemic  brought

with  it.  Contrary  to  what  happened  in  other  coun-

1  The World Health Organization defines an infodemic as “an

tries,  in  which  people  returned  to  television  as  a

overabundance of information – some accurate and some

trusted  medium  for  reliable  information,5  in  El  Sal-

not – that makes it hard for people to find trustworthy sources

vador  a  recent  study  showed  that  social  networks

and reliable guidance when they need it.” Pan American

Health Organization. (2020).  Understanding the infodemic and

remained the main sources of news and information

misinformation in the fight against COVID-19.  https://iris.paho.

org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/52052/Factsheet-infodemic_eng.

pdf?sequence=16&isAllowed=y

2  According to the International Federation of Library Associations

and Institutions (IFLA), “Media and Information Literacy consists

3  https://www.innovacion.gob.sv

of the knowledge, the attitudes, and the sum of the skills needed

4  Parra, R. (2021, 10 July). El Salvador presenta avances de su

to know when and what information is needed; where and how to

Agenda Digital 2020-2030.  DPL News. https://dplnews.com/

obtain that information; how to evaluate it critically and organise it

el-salvador-presenta-avances-de-su-agenda-digital-2020-2030

once it is found; and how to use it in an ethical way.” IFLA. (2011).

5  Negredo, S., et al. (2021). Spain. In N. Newman et al. (Eds.),

IFLA Media and Information Literacy Recommendations. https://

Digital News Report 2021. Reuters Institute for the Study

www.ifla.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/information-

of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/

literacy/publications/media-info-lit-recommend-en.pdf

digital-news-report/2021/spain

122  /  Global Information Society Watch

on the pandemic.6 Although this study indicates an

information from multiple sources, and sharing what

increase in television consumption during the pan-

is learned in a responsible way.11

demic – mainly of news – it does not refer to whether

UNESCO  has  recommended  to  states  that  they

this was due to the fact that Salvadorans trusted TV

invest in MIL programmes to combat disinformation

news more.

in  a  lasting  way,  a  recommendation  that  is  con-

Salvadorans also had to face a specific distor-

sistent  with  the  available  evidence12  and  with  the

tion  of  information  not  found  in  many  countries

recommendations of other organisations.13 There is,

dealing  with  the  circulation  of  false  information:

therefore, a preference for educational and training

propaganda.7  It  was  this,  mainly,  that  resulted  in

strategies  over  those  that  involve  legislation  that

some digital media developing content where pub-

can restrict fundamental rights, such as the right to

lic information that could be accessed at the time

freedom of expression.

was  contrasted  to  the  government’s  narrative  on

This call should be heeded, in the first instance,

the  pandemic.  This  exercise  resulted  in  evidence

by  states,  which  are  responsible  for  ensuring  that

of false, misleading or incomplete information pro-

their citizens enjoy their rights fully, including those

vided by the government and circulating on social

that  are  exercised  in  the  digital  environment.  The

networks, generally in the form of advertising spots

private  sector  also  has  a  role  to  play  in  this,  even

or posts on Twitter.

companies that have been blamed for the circulation

Currently, digital magazines such as  Factum 8 and

of  disinformation  online.  Cases  such  as  Facebook,

Gato  Encerrado 9  continue  to  publish  content  con-

which  has  consolidated  its  MIL  programme  in

trasting the official discourse on different topics that

Africa,14 or the DW Academy,15 which offers MIL pro-

range from politics to health. In addition, a new site10

grammes  in  Central  America,  are  examples  of  how

has been set up dedicated exclusively to combating

the  private  sector  can  become  actively  involved  in

disinformation  through  fact  checking,  and  it  also

this task.

checks  government  statements  on  the  pandemic,

However,  improving  the  public’s  MIL  cannot  be

among other issues.

done without foundations and only with a short-term

goal in mind. Public policies are needed, including in

Opportunities for MIL after the pandemic

education, that articulate the need for MIL in all are-

Disinformation  and  misinformation  are  not  new

as of training, teaching and learning.

phenomena  whose  appearance  can  be  attribut-

In  El  Salvador,  a  review  of  official  educational

ed  to  the  birth  and  growth  of  the  internet.  Their

documents, which include the curricula of different

existence  and  dissemination  are  also  associated

grades in different subjects, especially those related

with other media such as television, newspapers

to the study of language and the study of comput-

and radio. False information has also always trav-

ing,  reveal  a  limited  approach  to  the  MIL  concept.

elled  through  communities  by  word-of-mouth,  or

through other means.

11  Walraven, A., Brand-Gruwel, S., & Boshuizen, H. (2009). How

Studies on the skills that a reader must have to

students evaluate information and sources when searching the

deal  with  disinformation  suggest  that  they  are  not

World Wide Web for information.  Computers & Education, 52(1),

new either – although the extent of the information

234-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.08.003;

Goldman, S. R., et al. (2012). Comprehending and Learning From

that  needs  to  be  processed  online  has  increased,

Internet Sources: Processing Patterns of Better and Poorer

and there are technical tools and an understanding

Learners.  Reading Research Quarterly, 47(4), 356-381; Leu, et al.

(2013). The New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension:

of how the internet works that are necessary to pro-

Assessing and Preparing Students for the 21st Century With

cess the circulation of online information. Numerous

Common Core State Standards. In S. B. Neuman & L. B. Gambrell

studies  have  identified  these  skills  as  including

(Eds.),  Quality Reading Instruction in the Age of Common Core

Standards. International Reading Association.

choosing precise search terms, selecting relevant re-

12  Cunliffe-Jones, P., et al. (2021). The State of Media Literacy in Sub-

sults, critically evaluating information, synthesising

Saharan Africa 2020 and a Theory of Misinformation Literacy. In P.

Cunliffe-Jones et al.,  Misinformation Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa.

University of Westminster Press.

13  Relatoría Especial para la Libertad de Expresión de la CIDH.

(2019).  Guía para garantizar la libertad de expresión frente a la

6  Carballo, W., & Marroquin, A. (2020).  2020 D.C. Asi dio vuelta el

desinformación deliberada en contextos electorales. Organización

consumo mediático en El Salvador durante la COVID-19. Escuela

de Estados Americanos. https://www.oas.org/es/cidh/expresion/

de Comunicación Mónica Herrera y Maestría en Gestión Estratégica

publicaciones/Guia_Desinformacion_VF.pdf

de la Comunicación, UCA. https://uca.edu.sv/wp-content/

uploads/2020/12/investigacion-uca-asi-dio-vuelta-en-consumo-

14  Moyo, A. (2020, 17 June). Facebook consolidates digital literacy

mediatico-en-el-salvador-durante-la-covid-19.pdf

programmes in Africa.  ITWeb. https://www.itweb.co.za/content/

kYbe9MXDGKPMAWpG

7  https://propaganda.mediaeducationlab.com/learn

15  Banos Ruiz, I., & Binder, S. (2021, 22 March). Campus AMI,

8  https://www.revistafactum.com

competencias mediáticas en un viaje interactivo.  DW. https://www.

9  https://gatoencerrado.news

dw.com/en/campus-ami-competencias-medi%C3%A1ticas-en-un-

10  https://infodemia.com.sv

viaje-interactivo/a-56954102

EL SALVADOR / 123

The same happens when reviewing the current gov-

the  current  MIL  competencies  of  Salvadorans,  and

ernment’s commitment to digital transformation, in

how this may differ according to age group, or eco-

which, as mentioned, reference is made to the con-

nomic  and  social  circumstances.  One  of  the  pillars

cept of digital literacy, but in practice there are few

on  which  a  public  policy  must  rest  is  the  scientific

projects  that  will  contribute  towards  realising  this

knowledge of the phenomenon in which it is intend-

goal, and certainly not in line with a proper defini-

ed to intervene.

tion of MIL.

A  search  for  material  related  to  the  subject  re-

To develop an efficient and representative pub-

turned  few  results.  However,  this  does  not  mean

lic policy, it is necessary to start with a diagnosis of

that there is no research that has been done, or that

the situation in which the largest number of stake-

there  are  no  professionals  with  knowledge  of  the

holders participate. From this a draft policy should

subject or no institutions that are paying attention

be  developed  which  is  then  sent  out  for  public

to the subject. For example, two institutions that are

comment.  It  is  only  after  this  that  a  policy  can  be

paying attention to MIL are the José Simeón Cañas

finalised.

Central  American  University  (UCA)  and  the  Mónica

In the initial diagnosis, as well as in later stages

Herrera  School  of  Communications.  However,  more

of execution, it is necessary to identify the difficul-

is  needed,  and  universities  and  organisations  ded-

ties in the implementation of this policy.

icated  to  social  research  should  be  encouraged  to

One of the main obstacles that can explain the

research the topic to produce the scientific evidence

absence of a public policy on MIL in El Salvador is

to back up any policy that is developed.

the lack of political will. Without the convergence of

The  efforts  initiated  by  digital  magazines  in

different actors involved in the decision-making pro-

fact checking the statements of public officials is a

cesses, it will not be possible to develop an effective

first step – and illustrate the need to teach people

policy. In this regard, there is little that gives us hope

how to consume, produce and share information in

that MIL is being taken seriously in El Salvador, out-

a responsible manner. Although the work is carried

side of merely discussing the topic.

out  by  the  journalists  or  fact  checkers,  as  a  short-

If  the  same  government  uses  propaganda  as  a

term  action,  it  is  possible  to  take  these  initiatives

tool to feed a triumphalist narrative, which does not

as  a  starting  point  from  which  advocacy  work  can

hold  up  against  journalistic  scrutiny;  and  if  access

begin  to  establish  alliances  with  the  large  internet

to public information has been limited to the point

platforms  that  have  shown  interest  in  combating

of putting locks on information in the form of crimi-

disinformation.

nal legislation16 to discourage the use of anonymous

sources in journalistic reports critical of the govern-

Conclusion

ment, it is not possible to remain optimistic.

The appearance of a new disease that later became a

It is true that the implementation of MIL curricu-

pandemic brought with it the problem of information

la, whether for training or education, is not only the

overload, which exposed a large number of people

responsibility of the public sector, nor limited to the

around the world to the information disorder.

school  environment.  Instead,  MIL  training  includes

The need to counter disinformation led to a focus

the collaboration of private entities and is an analyt-

of attention on MIL as a long-term intervention that

ical skill that can be developed at home, work and in

should be instituted by states as a public policy, but

the community.

that does not exclude the collaboration of multiple

However, the effort of civil society organisations

stakeholders. Some large technology companies are

dedicated to strengthening education is essential to

already  implementing  MIL  projects  either  through

a successful MIL programme. Not only because of the

donations,  collaborations  with  civil  society  organi-

financial resources that are necessary for this type of

sations and states, as well as through the provision

project, but also because of their experience in ad-

of curricula and other educational resources on the

vocacy  on  a  key  issue  of  public  concern,  and  their

subject.

ability to forge alliances with other organisations or

In El Salvador, a public policy that integrates MIL

with companies interested in the implementation of

as a transversal axis to other policies is necessary,

MIL curricula.

and  this  proposal  should  come  from  civil  society.

Another obstacle is that there is very little aca-

However, before this can be done, there is a need for

demic research on this topic. Little is known about

more research on the matter in order to have a scien-

tific basis that allows establishing priority areas for

16  Rodríguez, M., & Alas, L. (2021, 9 December). Reformas a la Ley

intervention. This work should be carried out by uni-

de Delitos Informáticos amenazan al periodismo.  elsalvador.

versities  and  social  research  centres  that  have  the

com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/

financial and human resources to carry out the work.

asamblea-prensa/907913/2021

124  /  Global Information Society Watch

On the other hand, the main obstacle to the im-

Actions steps

plementation  of  a  broad-based  MIL  programme  in

The following steps are proposed to strengthen MIL

the country is the lack of political will, which man-

training and education in El Salvador in the immedi-

ifests  itself  in  actions  that  seek  to  limit  access  to

ate term:

information that would allow the development of a

critical citizenry. This issue conflicts with the objec-

•  Increase research on MIL capacities among pri-

tives of an MIL programme, which precisely seeks to

ority  groups,  such  as  rural  and  marginalised

provide citizens with tools that allow them to know,

communities and women.

criticise  and  propose  solutions  to  the  problems  of

•  Establish  alliances  with  large  platform  inter-

their daily life. The government has also shown itself

mediaries  to  secure  financial  support  for  the

to be an active participant in disinformation through

development of multidisciplinary MIL projects.

propaganda.

•  Establish  a  roadmap  for  the  development  of  a

This  obstacle,  however,  should  not  be  insur-

public  policy  that  places  MIL  on  a  transversal

mountable.  Human  rights  organisations  should

axis in relation to other policies.

strengthen their advocacy strategies, which should

include  multisectoral  alliances  to  implement

long-term  MIL  projects  in  the  country,  even  if  they

start  with  specific  or  limited  research  or  training

objectives.

The  renewed  interest  in  MIL  in  reaction  to  dig-

ital  magazines  beginning  to  fact  check  statements

by  public  officials  in  El  Salvador  should  be  taken

advantage of. This interest should become the start-

ing point for efforts to promote and implement MIL

programmes. The health crisis that produced other

sub-crises,  such  as  the  so-called  infodemic,  must

be used to strengthen the interest in developing the

tools  to  consume  and  produce  information  in  a  re-

sponsible and ethical manner.

EL SALVADOR / 125

INDIA

THEN AND NOW: NEW POST-PANDEMIC CHALLENGES TO DIGITAL RIGHTS

ADVOCACY IN INDIA

•  Tech-based  CSOs  are  increasingly  becoming

Digital Empowerment Foundation and Council for Social

and Digital Development

cognisant of the massive extraction and collec-

Osama Manzar, Syed S. Kazi and Tuisha Sircar

tion  of  data  that  have  reached  unprecedented

https://www.defindia.org and https://www.csddindia.in

levels, whether through government initiatives

in response to the pandemic, or by the private

sector through the intensified use of the inter-

Introduction

net globally.4

The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly affected civil soci-

•  With the pandemic stirring the relations between

ety – operations were disrupted, new issues emerged,

the  state  and  civil  society,  and  more  activism

and  civic  space  continued  to  close.1  The  pandemic

going online, further restrictions on digital com-

brought about travel restrictions, supply and network

munications have become a reality.5

chain  disruptions,  and  a  lack  of  access  to  many  of

the  services  that  civil  society  organisations  (CSOs)

Besides this framework of changes, there have been

offered.  Consequently,  digital  technology  emerged

other areas of concern for CSOs, including enabling

as a way for civil society to network, collaborate and

the right to information, addressing disinformation

engage in their areas of work and on their priorities.

and misinformation, and access to critical public in-

Although  digital  tools  reshaped  global  communica-

formation and government schemes.

tions decades ago, lockdown measures strengthened

In  this  newfound  and  accelerated  digital

digital  adoption  among  movements,  organisations

space,  there  are  two  broad  shifts  that  emerged

and  communities,  with  many  using  social  media  to

quite  clearly  in  how  CSOs  in  India  changed  their

mobilise people and resources, organise, and engage

ways  of  working  to  meet  the  challenges  that

in  advocacy,  networking  and  campaigning  to  raise

they  confronted.  Firstly,  issues  emerged  around

concerns and seek support and solutions.2

the  “why”  and  “how”.  Traditional  rights  advoca-

The pandemic also forced organisations in India

cy  CSOs  started  revisiting  traditional  modes  of

to reach for fresh ways of understanding, interpret-

communicating, and are now looking at adapting

ing and dissecting digital rights issues in an attempt

to digital modes to advocate on rights. Many are

to find remedies in a new context. With the acceler-

now opting to reorient and upgrade their work us-

ation  in  digital  adoption  during  the  pandemic,  the

ing digital platforms. And secondly, digital rights

issues  around  which  there  is  a  renewed  dialogue

and  tech-based  organisations  already  engaged

include the following:

in digital advocacy started to refocus on the new

challenges  of  digital  rights  that  were  emerging,

•  In a bid to connect and network large-scale civic

looking for alternative ways to address these: the

organisations,  grassroots  collectives  and  com-

“what”  and  “how”.  This  included  transiting  to  a

munities are freshly focusing on digital literacy

“super-normal” or higher-level use of digital plat-

and access to the internet and technology to lim-

forms, resources and tools and alternative ways of

it the risk of excluding people.3

networking to engage in advocacy.

This  report  aims  to  foreground  the  above  key

1  Brechenmacher, S., Youngs, R., & Carothers, T. (2020, 21

considerations  in  India,  the  world’s  largest  democ-

April). Civil Society and the Coronavirus: Dynamism Despite

racy  and  emerging  “digital  democratic”  country.  It

Disruption.  Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://

carnegieendowment.org/2020/04/21/civil-society-and-coronavirus-

dynamism-despite-disruption-pub-81592

2  Nampoothiri, N. J., & Artuso, F. (2021). Civil Society’s Response to

Coronavirus Disease 2019: Patterns from Two Hundred Case Studies

of Emergent Agency.  Journal of Creative Communications, 16(2),

4  Zwitter, A., & Gstrein, O. J. (2020). Big data, privacy and COVID-19

203-212. https://doi.org/10.1177/09732586211015057

– learning from humanitarian expertise in data protection.

3  Allmann, K. (2020, 11 May). Covid-19 is increasing digital inequality:

International Journal of Humanitarian Action, 5(4). https://doi.

We need human connectivity to close the digital divide.  Medium.

org/10.1186/s41018-020-00072-6

https://medium.com/swlh/covid-19-is-increasing-digital-inequality-

5  Lindberg, S. I. (Ed.) (2021).  Autocratization Turns Viral: Democracy

but-human-connectivity-is-the-answer-424812acbb65; Reddy A, B., Report 2021. University of Gothenburg: V-Dem Institute .  https://

Jose, S., & Vaidehi, R. (2020). Digital Divide in Online Education: Of

www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/c9/3f/c93f8e74-a3fd-4bac-

Access and Inclusivity.  Economic and Political Weekly, 55(36).

adfd-ee2cfbc0a375/dr_2021.pdf

126  /  Global Information Society Watch

discusses  how  digitally-enabled,6  digital  technol-

strategies to continue functioning and provide sup-

ogy  and  rights-based  organisations  in  the  country

port to those in need during these dire times.

have  revisited  their  priorities,  strategies,  means

The advent of the pandemic not only forced CSOs

and mediums in a period of accelerated transition to

advocating on rights-based issues to adapt to new

advocate, network and seek solutions to the digital

strategies, but also induced them to shift their advo-

issues that concern millions in an emerging digital

cacy  priorities. They  tirelessly  participated  in  relief

society and economy. This report seeks to look at the

efforts, disseminated critical information necessary

future of digital rights and other technology-based

to  contain  panic,  and  worked  with  the  state’s  cen-

issues in India, through the lens of the civil society

tralised  funding  mechanism  created  to  combat  the

organisations  in  the  tech  space,  but  not  limited  to

pandemic to supplement their work.

this.

The  health,  education  and  livelihood  sectors

To be able to imagine a post-pandemic reality of

promptly adapted to digital strategies. For instance,

how CSOs engage in advocacy, it is pertinent to high-

Smile  Foundation8  launched  an  initiative  called

light how the COVID-19 pandemic has shaped their

“Shiksha  Na  Ruke”  where  they  provided  under-

advocacy strategies on critical digital rights and tech

privileged  children  access  to  continuous  learning

issues  in  India,  a  country  marred  by  various  chal-

through the provision of electronic devices, trained

lenges. While for some stakeholders these changing

teachers  for  virtual  teaching,  curated  educational

means, methods and approaches to advocacy have

content  suitable  for  digital  platforms,  and  ensured

the  potential  for  a  drastic  digital  transformation,

mental  well-being  through  individual  mentoring

others  hold  a  more  pessimistic  perspective,  ex-

sessions.  In  the  health  sector,  the  Society  for  Nu-

pressing  concerns  about  the  challenges  that  civic

trition,  Education  and  Health  Action  (SNEHA)9  has

actors are facing in the creation of a robust network

been conducting emotional resilience sessions and

of  digital  rights  advocates  in  India.  The  latter  can

counselling through online group calls with adoles-

be  highlighted  by  the  fact  that  since  the  advent  of

cents in grassroots communities. They also trained

the digital century, the number of CSOs working on

Accredited  Social  Health  Activist  (ASHA)  workers

digital rights and tech issues in India has been abys-

and  hundreds  of  members  of  Mahila  Arogya  Sami-

mally low, and few new voices are emerging.

tis  (Women’s  Health  Committees)  remotely  on

preventive measures, proper use of masks, the iden-

Context: A shifting focus for CSOs

tification  of  early  symptoms  of  COVID-19,  and  how

The  highly  infectious  COVID-19  virus,  which  origi-

to do referrals to medical practitioners. It has been

nated in Wuhan, China, was declared by the World

estimated that nearly three million people were im-

Health Organization (WHO) as a global health emer-

pacted by the outreach of CSOs in India.10

gency  on  11  March  2020.7  The  declaration  of  the

The pandemic also forced CSOs working on crit-

pandemic led to the imposition of lockdowns across

ical digital rights and tech issues in India to revisit

nations,  including  India,  as  a  precautionary  meas-

issues  such  as  free  speech,  digital  security,  acces-

ure to contain the spread of infection by mandating

sibility,  internet  governance,  digital  surveillance,

populations to self-isolate, quarantine and maintain

data privacy, censorship, and what was termed the

social distancing. Since March 2020, India has seen

“infodemic”.  The  debates  around  these  issues  are

three waves of exponentially rising cases of the vi-

being juxtaposed and intersected with other social

rus,  which  led  to  full  or  partial  restrictions  on  the

discourses  around  gender,  caste,  poverty  and  the

mobility of people both inter- and intra-states. The

environment.

restrictions forced organisations and institutions to

adapt to the use of digital communications in order

Our investigation

to  continue  their  work  from  remote  locations.  The

In line with the substance of the enquiry of this issue

large  network  of  CSOs  in  India  advocating  on  vari-

of GISWatch, the core question we sought to address

ous  rights-based  issues  also  developed  innovative

in this report was: “How has the COVID-19 pandemic

changed  or  shaped  the  ways  in  which  civil  society

organisations do their advocacy work around digital

6  Digitally enabled organisations are those that opt to primarily function

technology-related issues, including digital rights?”

using digital platforms, tools and resources. Largely, their internal and

external communication and advocacy work (research, workshops,

meetings, etc.) are done online. Many digital rights organisations had

already transitioned to such a mode of working prior to the pandemic.

8  https://www.smilefoundationindia.org/me

However,  the  pandemic  pushed  most  organisations  to  make  the

9  https://snehamumbai.org/covid-19

transition and develop either fully online or hybrid ways of functioning.

10  Participatory Research in Asia & VANI Network. (2020).  Response

7  Ducharme, J. (2020, 11 March). World Health Organization Declares

of Indian Civil Society Towards COVID-19. https://www.pria.org/

COVID-19 a ‘Pandemic.’ Here’s What That Means.  TIME. https://

knowledge_resource/1594293825_Response%20of%20CSO%20

time.com/5791661/who-coronavirus-pandemic-declaration

towards%20covid19.pdf

INDIA / 127

This required a careful analysis of its many lay-

Technology played a central role in the delivery

ers. For example, in order to arrive at a comparative

of various emergency services that were earlier de-

perspective, it has been necessary to understand the

pendent  on  community  mobilisation.  For  example,

changes  that  CSOs  had  to  make  in  their  methods,

Social  Media  Matters,13  an  organisation  primarily

tools  and  approaches  to  continue  their  advocacy

working on online safety, disinformation and misin-

work, compared to the pre-pandemic period.

formation,  and  digital  parenting,  started  a  project

The  digital  capacities  of  the  organisations  was

called “My Pincode” where a few million users in In-

also  important,  as  was  the  extent  of  networking

dia were reached through 783 Facebook groups. The

and collaboration among CSOs, public agencies and

purpose was to counter the spread of “fake news”

communities, which spoke to the resilience of CSOs

about  the  pandemic,  to  present  real-time  updates

during the pandemic.

on  the  pandemic  from  the  government  in  simple,

Lastly, it was necessary to look at the scope of

accessible  language,  and  to  share  videos  made  by

the changes engendered by the pandemic, and the

volunteers.14

extent  to  which  these  changes  might  impact  the

During  the  second  wave  of  the  COVID-19  out-

functioning and advocacy work of CSOs with respect

break  in  India  in  April  2021,  there  was  an  acute

to digital tech issues in the future.

shortage  of  life-saving  oxygen,  drugs  and  hospital

The  following  sections  are  based  on  research

beds across the nation.15 Efforts by both government

conducted  by  Digital  Empowerment  Foundation

and  CSOs  had  shortcomings  given  the  vastness  of

(DEF)  and  the  Council  for  Social  and  Digital  De-

the crisis. Consequently, thousands of civilians, es-

velopment  (CSDD)  through  both  qualitative  and

pecially  youth,  participated  in  a  voluntary  drive  of

quantitative processes. The qualitative data was col-

setting  up  apps  to  crowdsource  aid,  delivering  key

lected through in-depth interview sessions with five

supplies and using social media to direct resources

well-known CSOs working on digital rights and oth-

to people in need.16

er tech-based issues in India. Quantitative data has

been used to map the changing advocacy strategies

Moving to digital: Minimising the use of

and shifting priority issues of the CSOs. For this, nine

resources and maximising reach

organisations were selected. A detailed mapping of

For tech-based CSOs, the shift to a digital mode of

their  advocacy  between  March  2020  and  Decem-

operating has been relatively easier, despite chang-

ber  2021  was  conducted  by  looking  at  the  content

es  in  the  mode  of  communication  to  phone  calls

on  their  websites  and  social  media  profiles.  This

and  online  meetings.  For  some  organisations,  the

considered the focus of their research, workshops,

transition to online work has also allowed them to

webinars, conferences and discussions, among oth-

minimise  the  use  of  resources,  including  financial

ers. These were then subjected to a cross-tabulation

resources,  and  maximise  reach.  For  instance,  the

analysis  using  variables  such  as  the  topic  and  the

Software  Freedom  Law  Centre  (SFLC),  an  organi-

advocacy methods, its frequency and date.

sation  based  out  of  Delhi,  now  conducts  its  digital

security  training  and  research  on  digital  platforms

Filling the gap: CSOs and informal activism

using free/libre and open source platforms like Jit-

during COVID-19

si or BigBlueButton. Like other CSOs, it has started

Civil society in India is a vast network of organisations,

publishing  its  research  reports  online,  which  not

working upwards from the grassroots level. It is con-

only saves resources but also saves time. Before the

ceptualised  as  “the  sum  total  of  all  individual  and

pandemic,  the  SFLC  ran  in-person  conferences  for

collective initiatives for common public good.”11 During

policy consultations that required a heavy financial

the pandemic, the most striking trend in civil society

investment. Now its conferences have moved online,

has  been  the  spread  of  informal  activism  –  forms  of

which allows them to increase their reach globally.17

self-organisation aimed at practical problem solving.12

On  one  hand,  civil  society  filled  the  gap  left  by  the

13  https://www.socialmediamatters.in

state. On the other hand, informal networks and com-

14  Interview with Social Media Matters CEO Pratishtha Arora, 27

munities filled the gaps left by some of the larger and

January 2022.

more formal CSOs with more rigid bureaucracies.

15  Thadhani, A. (2021).  Preventing a Repeat of the COVID-19 Second-

Wave Oxygen Crisis in India.  Observer Research Foundation.

https://www.orfonline.org/research/preventing-a-repeat-of-the-

covid-19-second-wave-oxygen-crisis-in-india

11  Tandon,  R.,  &  Mohanty,  R.  (2002).   Civil  Society  and  Governance.

16  AFP. (2021, 4 May). India’s youth fight the covid second wave with

Samskriti.

apps and oxygen.  Live Mint.  https://www.livemint.com/news/

12  Youngs, R., et al. (2021).  Civil Society and the Global Pandemic:

india/indias-young-fight-the-covid-second-wave-with-apps-and-

Building Back Different?  Carnegie Endowment for International

oxygen-11620095849517.html

Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/files/2021-CRN_Global%20

17  Interview with Software Freedom Law Centre volunteer legal counsel

Pandemic.pdf

Radhika Jhalani, 7 February 2022.

128  /  Global Information Society Watch

TABLE 1.

Areas of focus for research and advocacy by Indian digital rights CSOs during the COVID-19

pandemic

Areas of focus

Potential and challenges of FinTech: Inclusive systems, regulatory mechanisms, digital infrastructure,

1.

crypto assets18

2.

Digital labour

3.

Reimagining data systems beyond gender binaries

Rural connectivity: The last mile and engaging with digital rights and technology-related issues at the

4.

grassroots

5.

Data privacy, personal freedom and informed user consent

6.

The arbitrary imposition of Aarogya Setu19

7.

“Fake news”, misinformation and disinformation

8.

Digital surveillance through technologies such as facial recognition systems

9.

Digital security, online safety and data empowerment

Reimagining artificial intelligence (AI) futures: Inclusive systems, innovation, policy advocacy, regula-

10.  tory mechanisms, digital infrastructure

11.  Digital technologies and education

12. Digital justice for gender and disability inclusion

13.

Online violence against marginalised groups

14. Reimagining the data commons

15.

Datafication of people’s health

16. Gender and the digital divide

17.

E-waste management and the circular economy of the electronics sector

18. Access to livelihoods and entitlements

19. Digital parenting

This is not confined to the SFLC. Working online,

in 2020 to expand its public engagement efforts in a

CSOs have been able to host more webinars and online

“democratic dialogue with citizens” on digital rights.21

conferences, in an environment where this was increas-

DEF  engaged  with  a  wider  public  by  reinventing  its

ingly accepted as standard practice, allowing them to

“DEFDialogues” during the COVID-19 pandemic, which

reach  a  wider  audience.20  This  included  the  Internet

are available on YouTube and the DEF website.22

Freedom  Foundation  (IFF),  which  launched  a  forum

There was evidence of an increase in the use of

social  media,  especially  Twitter  and  Instagram,  for

policy  advocacy  and  awareness  raising  on  various

18  Markets around the world are increasingly integrating cryptocurrencies

in their economies. For instance, Costa Rica announced that employees

rights-based  issues,  including  digital  rights.  The

might get legally paid in cryptocurrency. As a result, its adoption in the

Centre for Internet and Society also started a tech-

country spiked. The Philippines is another example of cryptocurrency

being championed. In 2020, the country’s central bank approved nearly

nology and policy podcast in 2020 called “In Flux”,

16 cryptocurrency exchanges, placing the Philippines at the forefront of

which is available on various streaming platforms.23

Southeast Asian countries in terms of the “crypto boom”. India is also

These initiatives occurred against the backdrop

an emerging crypto market: according to a report by Chainalysis, India’s

crypto market increased by 641% between July 2020 and June 2021.

of an increase in the adoption of free/libre and open

Cryptocurrency also brought in new cohorts of investors to the market –

source software since the start of the pandemic.24

youngsters and women. As a result, the government is increasingly looking

at the introduction of strict regulations of crypto assets and penetration of

the market by introducing Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDC).

21  https://internetfreedom.in/year-in-review-scaling-up-iffs-operations-

19  Aarogya Setu is an Indian COVID-19 “contact tracing, syndromic

and-community

mapping and self-assessment” digital service, primarily a mobile

22  https://www.defindia.org/defdialogues

app, developed by the National Informatics Centre under the

23  https://in-flux.cis-india.org

Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.

24  TechGig. (2021, 9 February). Open Source software developers were

20  Tanidir, Y., et al. (2021). How did the COVID-19 pandemic affect

more active during COVID-19: Survey.  Tech Gig.  https://content.

audience’s attitudes in webinars?  The International Journal of

techgig.com/open-source-software-developers-were-more-active-

Clinical Practice,   75(7). https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.14239

during-covid-19-survey/articleshow/80764250.cms

INDIA / 129

Areas of focus for digital rights activists

CSOs  solely  engaged  in  the  policy  space  like  the

during the pandemic

Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF) also relied on ex-

Table 1 lists the broad focus areas for digital rights and

tensive networking and collaboration. For instance,

technology-related issues among the following key In-

for  their  analysis  of  AgriStack,36  IFF  collaborated

dian digital rights CSOs during the pandemic: Digital

with  various  farmer  groups  and  even  sent  a  joint

Empowerment  Foundation,25  Centre  for  Internet  and

letter signed by 55 organisations to the Union Min-

Society,26 IT for Change,27 Internet Democracy Project,28

ister for Agriculture asking for further consultations

NASSCOM  Foundation,29  Internet  Freedom  Founda-

with  all  stakeholders.  The  letter  highlighted  the

tion,30  Centre  for  Catalyzing  Change,31  Social  Media

need  for  statutory  backing,  and  demanded  greater

Matters32 and Policy 4.0.33 These areas of focus were

transparency with regard to the financial details of

either  new  areas  for  the  organisations  or  areas  that

the  project.37  In  collaboration  with  close  to  50  or-

the organisations returned to due to the impact of the

ganisations, IFF also studied the Aarogya Setu app,

pandemic. The issues are in no specific order of priority.

critically mapped resistance to and criticism of the

As the table suggests, there was a focus on the emerg-

app,  filed  right  to  information  requests  to  under-

ing  digital  economy  and  financial  resources,  and  its

stand the development and roll-out of the app, and

impact on labour and employment, which included is-

engaged  in  strategic  litigation  in  the  Kerala  High

sues impacting on gender, the informal workforce and

Court  against  its  arbitrary  imposition.38  In  terms

farmers. A renewed focus on surveillance technologies

of  its  work  on  medical  healthcare  data  policies  it

also emerged, including its implications for privacy and

has  collaborated  with  organisations  in  the  medical

constitutional  rights  such  as  free  speech,  censorship

healthcare  space  like  the  Forum  for  Medical  Ethics

and  access  to  the  internet.  E-education  and  e-health

and Research.39

related concerns were also covered. Most important-

Navigating the need for grassroots work on

ly,  concerns  around  the  digital  divide  were  revisited

digital rights

with a renewed urgency. More than addressing these

problems on a short-term basis, CSOs engaged in reim-

With the restrictions imposed on mobility, CSOs had

agining futures and issues that need sustainable focus

to  adapt  to  innovative  strategies  to  continue  func-

and work in growing the digital society.

tioning, sometimes in remote locations. Many CSOs

like  Social  Media  Matters  and  Feminist  Approach

Networking and collaborating for greater

to  Technology  (FAT),40  despite  working  on  technol-

public participation

ogy- related issues, typically engaged in field-work

CSOs  in  India  have  shown  resilience  during  the

research and face-to-face capacity building and ad-

COVID-19  pandemic  by  strategically  entering  into

vocacy. However, after the pandemic they developed

partnerships  and  networking  with  stakeholders,

new methods, changed their approach, and adapted

grassroots organisations and other CSOs to engage

to the use of new digital tools so that they could con-

in  people-driven  work.34  Collaborations  were  seen

tinue their grassroots engagement. For instance, FAT

between  CSOs  and  government  agencies,  local  or-

mobilised its project participants – who are primarily

ganisations,  local  people  and  communities,  and

adolescent  girls  from  marginalised  groups  in  rural,

even  with  migrant  and  diaspora  organisations.35

peri-urban  and  urban  communities  across  Delhi,

Bihar, Jharkhand and Pune – through smart devices

that  were  either  owned  by  the  girls  or  distributed

25  https://www.defindia.org

by  FAT  to  remote  locations. The  pandemic  prompt-

26  https://cis-india.org

ed them to start a girl-led campaign called “Corona

27  https://itforchange.net

nahi Karuna” where they used the devices to gather

28  https://internetdemocracy.in

information, distinguish between fake news and le-

29  https://nasscomfoundation.org

30  https://internetfreedom.in

gitimate news, connect to organisations distributing

31  https://www.c3india.org

32  https://www.socialmediamatters.in

33  https://policyfourpointo.com

36  As a collection of digital databases, AgriStack would have some

core features including a unique farmer identity number for each

34  Datta, N. (2021, 25 February). Promoting resilience among CSOs

farmer, and some building blocks such as data on weather, the

through partnerships and people-driven work in India.  Global

newest science and research on agriculture, agricultural commodity

Standard for CSO Accountability. https://www.csostandard.org/cso-

prices in India and abroad, and information and access to central

standard/promoting-resilience-among-csos-through-partnerships-

government schemes, agricultural regulations and permissions.

and-people-driven-work-in-india

37  https://internetfreedom.in/joint-letter-to-the-agriculture-minister

35  Khan, F., Yadav, A., & Sahoo, S. (2021, 26 April). Pandemic, CSOs,

and Collaboration - Perspectives from India.  Queen Mary Global

38  https://internetfreedom.in/kerala-hc-aarogya-setu

Policy Institute.  https://www.qmul.ac.uk/gpi/projects/migpanbrin/

39  Interview with Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF) Executive Director

blog/items/pandemic-csos-and-collaboration---perspectives-from-

Apar Gupta, 1 February 2022.

india.html

40  https://www.fat-net.org

130  /  Global Information Society Watch

TABLE 2

Shift in methods used for advocacy: Pre-2020 and post-2020

Number

Pre-2020

Post-2020

1

Field-based research

Limited field-based interventions/Remote research

2

In-person community engagement

Online community engagement

3

In-person capacity building

Online capacity building

4

In-person workshops

Online workshops

5

In-person conferences

Online conferences

6

In-person meetings

Online/telephonic meetings

7

Seminars

Webinars

rations as well as to different government schemes,

stepping  outside  of  their  houses  or  travelled  in

and  assist  people  in  their  communities  in  various

private  vehicles.  Consequently,  no  new  data  was

ways. By doing this they created an emergency sup-

generated through the Safetipin app. The Safetipin

port system using smart devices.

team modified their methodology to conducting on-

However,  the  implementation  of  FAT’s  pro-

line  surveys  and  physical  safety  audits  in  selected

grammes  online  also  resulted  in  the  loss  of

zones following proper COVID-19 protocols.43

participants  for  various  reasons,  such  as  a  lack  of

access  to  devices,  restrictions  imposed  by  families

Shifts to digital methods for research,

on  the  girls  owning  devices,  difficulties  in  manag-

capacity building and advocacy

ing  school  or  college  commitments,  and  increased

The  methods  for  advocacy  shifted  drastically  for

household responsibilities.

CSOs working on rights-based issues, including dig-

Apart  from  these  challenges,  other  issues  in-

ital rights, during the pandemic. While most of this

cluded a lack of privacy and confidentiality at home

shift  relied  on  digital  technologies  as  broadly  pre-

during  online  sessions,  an  increase  in  household

sented  in Table  2,  in  some  cases  there  was  a  shift

health problems due to the pandemic, and increased

towards a “community outreach” model of collecting

boredom, which affected online participation of the

data44 (as seen in the case of Safetipin). Neverthe-

girls.41 Some participants also left the project due to

less,  CSOs  are  reimagining  their  engagement  with

early marriage.

the  digital  world  in  a  post-pandemic  society  and

striving for a greater digital transformation.

Gender safety and user-generated data

under lockdown

Future challenges to digital rights advocacy

For a platform like Safetipin,42 whose advocacy work

in India

on “safe cities for women” relies on the data gener-

The  pandemic  has  engendered  unique  challenges

ated through the Safetipin app, the pandemic posed

for  every  CSO  working  on  rights-based  issues,  in-

a major problem. The app functions through safety

cluding digital rights. Some of the broad challenges

audits,  whereby  the  user  rates  a  specific  location

faced by CSOs working on digital rights and technol-

through geotagging on the basis of nine parameters:

ogy-related issues in India are:

lighting, visibility, pedestrian routes to the location,

•  Lack  of  grassroots  engagement:  Various  so-

openness, transport, people, security, gender usage

cio-cultural  and  economic  factors  are  playing  a

and  feeling.  These  parameters  are  each  given  dif-

role in worsening existing inequalities along the

ferent  weightings  and  an  algorithm  calculates  the

lines of gender, caste and religion. Consequent-

safety scores. As more audits are performed by us-

ly,  CSOs  are  unable  to  bridge  the  gap  between

ers, Safetipin collects more “accurate” information.

learning,  empowerment  and  advocacy  solely

This data is then used to write reports and shared

through technology. Issues relating to the digital

with the stakeholders who further use it to execute

divide  and  digital  illiteracy  in  India,  like  online

certain projects.

education or access to critical information, were

However,  during  the  months  of  the  lockdown,

therefore heightened due to this crisis.

due to restrictions on mobility, people either stopped

41  Interview with Feminist Approach to Technology (FAT) Executive

43  Interview with Safetipin programme head Sonali Vyas, 7 February

Director Gayatri Buragohain, 27 January 2022.

2022.

42  https://safetipin.com

44  Youngs, R., et al. (2021). Op. cit.

INDIA / 131

•  Unfavourable  funding  environment:  The  pan-

have come alongside repeated instances of the

demic  has  exacerbated  the  existing  economic

government  cracking  down  on  citizens’  right  to

inequalities  in  India.  According  to  the  statistics

free  speech.49  Many  experts  have  also  raised

released by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Econ-

concerns  about  the  Draft  Data  Protection  Bill

omy, 10 million people lost their jobs by May 2021.

(2021), which poses a threat to data privacy and

The  labour  participation  rate  has  come  down  to

the  personal  freedom  of  citizens.50  Moreover,

40% from a pre-pandemic level of 42.5%.45 CSOs

there are currently 82 facial recognition systems

are also facing operational difficulties as the cur-

in  place  across  India,  strengthening  the  state’s

rent funding environment does not allow investing

surveillance architecture.51 There are many oth-

in  human  resources.46  The  Foreign  Contribution

er  concerns  regarding  citizens’  digital  rights,

(Regulation)  Amendment  Bill,  2020  has  further

especially  without  adequate  legal  safeguards

put caps on foreign contributions for CSOs, great-

and a good regulatory framework for digital in-

ly affecting their capacity to be sustainable.47 The

frastructure. CSOs working on digital rights and

lack  of  subsidies,  inadequate  tax  exemptions,

other technology-related issues are increasingly

high  administrative  costs  and  expensive  digital

dealing  with  the  threat  of  being  seen  as  con-

resources and services are creating a barrier for

frontationist  and  anti-establishment,  which  is

existing  CSOs  to  scale  up  their  operations,  gen-

closing opportunities for them to freely partici-

erate new opportunities and provide relief at the

pate in the civic space.

grassroots. These factors are also hindering new

•  Lack  of  a  collaborative  space  to  find  synergy

organisations from emerging.

and work with public agencies: The civic space

•  Constrained  digital  skills  and  capacities:  With

where CSOs can collaborate and work dialectical-

the increasing adoption of the digital, there is a

ly with public agencies is increasingly shrinking

need  to  invest  in  building  the  digital  skills  and

in  India.  Being  the  world’s  largest  democracy,

capacities of CSOs in order for them to seamless-

India needs adequate public participation to de-

ly  function  online  in  the  future.  This  challenge

liver  on  its  citizen-centred  policies  where  CSOs

is closely linked to the challenge regarding the

play an important role.

unfavourable  funding  environment  in  India,  as

CSOs  need  to  invest  in  human  resources,  col-

Conclusion

laborate with external agencies on mass digital

CSOs  in  India  working  on  rights-based  issues,  in-

training across different verticals, and invest in

cluding digital rights, have shown great resilience in

up-to-date digital tools for effective and efficient

the  face  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic  by  adapting  to

functioning.

innovative digital strategies to continue functioning,

•  An  increase  in  arbitrary  control  and  surveil-

and to provide support to those in need of essential

lance:  While  India  has  seen  a  surge  in  the

services and resources. The CSOs largely managed

disruption of various civil liberties of its citizens

the  transition  to  a  digital  mode  of  operation  and

in  the  past  few  years,  discourses  surrounding

changed their approach and methods of advocating

the violation of digital rights have also picked up

on critical digital rights issues.

pace as digital rights are increasingly being rec-

However,  the  increased  reliance  on  technolo-

ognised as human rights. Since 2012, India has

gy renewed concerns with respect to digital rights.

seen  556  cases  of  internet  shutdowns.48 These

Emerging debates about technology are intersecting

with  other  social  discourses  like  those  on  gender,

caste,  poverty  and  the  environment.  At  the  same

45  BusinessToday. (2021, 1 June). 10 million lost jobs in Covid 2nd

wave, 97% households’ income declined: CMIE.  BusinessToday.

time,  these  debates  are  dealing  with  matters  such

in.  https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy-politics/story/

as free speech, digital security, accessibility, internet

income-of-97-households-declined-since-covid-19-pandemic-

governance,  digital  surveillance,  data  privacy,  and

began-cmie-298381-2021-06-01

46  Bandhyopadhyay, K. K., et al. (2021).  Civil Society Support

to COVID-19 Affected Families: Outreach and Resourcing in

the Second Wave.  PRIA. https://www.pria.org/knowledge_

49  Mchangama, J., & Mendiratta, R. (2021, 25 June). Supporting

resource/1625214248_Civil_Society_Support_to_C19_Affected_

free speech, but not criticism of government.  The Indian

Families_During_2nd_wave.pdf

Express.  https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/

47  Bhatnagar, G. V. (2020, 22 September). Leading NGOs Believe FCRA

supporting-free-speech-but-not-criticism-of-government-7376023

Changes Will ‘Kill’ Voluntary Sector.  The Wire. https://thewire.in/

50  Chari, S. (2022, 4 February). Data privacy too complex to be decided

rights/fcra-amendment-ngo-sector-impact-grassroots-activism

by mere voice vote. Debate Data Protection Bill first.  The Print.

48  The Software Freedom Law Centre’s internet shutdown tracker

https://theprint.in/opinion/data-privacy-too-complex-to-be-decided-

provides real-time data on the number of internet shutdowns

by-mere-voice-vote-debate-data-protection-bill-first/820652

in India. At the time of writing this report, 556 cases of

51  The Internet Freedom Foundation’s facial recognition technology

internet shutdown had been reported since 2012. https://

(FRT) tracker under Project Panoptic provides real-time data on the

internetshutdowns.in

number of FRT systems installed across India. https://panoptic.in

132  /  Global Information Society Watch

censorship. Because of this, and more than before,

•  Through  greater  grassroots  contact,  nurture

CSOs  working  on  critical  digital  rights  and  tech  is-

and  encourage  more  digital  rights  and  tech-

sues have started collaborating and networking with

nology-based  organisations  to  emerge  at  the

CSOs  and  other  stakeholders  advocating  on  more

community level.

traditional issues.

•  Encourage  the  creation  of  more  collabora-

However,  while  the  shift  to  digital  has  opened

tive  digital  forums  by  CSOs  for  a  greater  civic

up new avenues for a greater digital transformation,

participation.

many  are  increasingly  expressing  concerns  about

•  Encourage  greater  engagement  between  CSOs,

the challenges that civic actors are facing in the cre-

public  agencies  and  local  communities  in  the

ation of a robust network of digital rights advocates

matters  of  emerging  digital  technology  and

in India. Some of these challenges are: 1) a lack of

rights issues.

direct  grassroots  engagement;  2)  an  unfavourable

funding  environment;  3)  inaccessibility  of  cost-ef-

fective digital resources, platforms and services; 4)

constrained digital skills and capacities; 5) growing

arbitrary  control  and  surveillance;  and  6)  a  lack  of

a collaborative space to find synergy and work with

public agencies.

Action steps

Through consultation and critical engagement with

various  CSOs  on  the  topic  of  the  future  of  digital

rights  and  technology-related  issues  in  India,  DEF

and CSDD are proposing the following action steps:

•  Make  cost-effective  digital  resources,  servic-

es  and  tools  available  to  CSOs  and  grassroots

communities  to  enable  a  democratic  and  inclu-

sive  digital  ecosystem.  Emphasise  building  the

digital skills and capacities of CSOs to sustain a

growing digital society.

INDIA / 133

KENYA

THE IMPACT OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON THE FUTURE OF ONLINE

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION IN KENYA

under  article  33  of  the  Constitution.3 This  decision

ARTICLE 19 Eastern Africa

Catherine Muya, Muthuri Kathure and Mugambi Kiai

was a win for online expression, ensuring that inter-

https://www.article19.org

net users would not be prosecuted for defamation.

Unfortunately,  in  2018,  Kenya  enacted  the

Computer Misuse and Cybercrime Act, a law that in-

Introduction

troduced the offence of criminal defamation and 25

other provisions that have a chilling effect on online

Article 33 of the Constitution of Kenya guarantees

free expression.4 In response to the act, the Bloggers

every  person  the  right  to  freedom  of  expression

Association of Kenya (BAKE),5 supported by ARTICLE

regardless  of  the  medium.  Despite  this,  in  2021,

19  Eastern  Africa,  filed  a  petition  challenging  the

ARTICLE 19 ranked Kenya as “less restricted”, with

constitutionality of 26 provisions of this act.6 How-

a global expression score of 61 out of 100, through

ever, in a judgement delivered in February 2020, the

a  global  metric  that  measures  free  expression

High Court held these provisions were constitution-

across  the  world.1  While  “less  restricted”  may

al and the provisions were still in effect and applied

seem positive, it actually means the country still

during the pandemic.7

bears  some  challenges  that  inhibit  the  exercise

Other concerns related to online free expression

of  free  expression  both  online  and  offline. These

prior to the pandemic included the attempt by par-

challenges are often either legal or administrative,

liament  in  2019  to  pass  a  law  to  license  bloggers

i.e.  they  are  associated  with  the  legal  or  policy

and  regulate  the  conduct  of  social  media  users.8

framework for free speech, or the implementation

The Kenya Film and Classification Board also made

of these.

decisions before and during the pandemic that vio-

This report highlights the legal and administra-

lated free expression and restricted access to certain

tive  concerns  related  to  the  exercise  of  online  free

films, particularly those with LGBTIQ content.9

speech in Kenya and how the pandemic further im-

Ahead  of  Kenya’s  third  Universal  Periodic  Re-

pacted free expression online. It shows how existing

view  (UPR)  in  2020,  ARTICLE  19  sent  a  detailed

and new legislation has been utilised to restrict free

memorandum  to  the  UN  Human  Rights  Committee

expression online during the pandemic and further

highlighting  problematic  provisions  in  Kenya’s  le-

analyses the impact of these changes on the future

gal  framework  that  entrench  broad  surveillance

of  free  expression  in  the  country.  It  ends  with  rec-

practices,  and  content-based  restrictions  to  online

ommended actions to be implemented by different

free  expression.  These  include  legislation  like  the

stakeholders to safeguard online freedom of expres-

Prevention  of  Terrorism  Act  2012  and  the  National

sion in the country.

Background

3  Ibid.

4  ARTICLE 19. (2018, 18 May). Kenya: Passage of flawed Computer

Before  the  pandemic,  activists  in  Kenya  had  some

and Cybercrimes Act threatens free expression.   https://www.

wins  with  respect  to  free  expression,  such  as  the

article19.org/resources/kenya-passage-of-flawed-computer-and-

cybercrimes-act-threatens-free-expression

declaration  of  the  offence  of  criminal  defamation,

5  https://bake.co.ke

specifically relating to libel under section 194 of the

6  ARTICLE 19. (2018, 5 June). Kenya: Suspension of Cybercrimes Act

Penal  Code,  as  unconstitutional  in  2017.2 The  High

provisions a welcome step to protect free expression. https://www.

article19.org/resources/kenya-suspension-of-cybercrimes-act-

Court found that criminal sanctions ought to be re-

provisions-a-welcome-step-to-protect-free-expression

served for the most serious offences, such as hate

7  ARTICLE 19. (2021).  Kenya: Briefing on attacks against journalists

speech  or  incitement  to  violence,  as  stipulated

March 2020-July 2021. https://www.article19.org/wp-content/

uploads/2021/11/Covid-Response-Africa_Kenya.pdf

8  Muya, C. (2019).  Policy analysis on the Kenya Information and

Communication (Amendment) Bill.  The Lawyers Hub Kenya. https://

lawyershub.org/media/Policy_Analysis_on_Kenya_Information_

1  ARTICLE 19. (2021).  The Global Expression Report 2021: The state

and_Communcation_Amendment_Act_1_UXKIfMV.pdf

of freedom of expression around the world.  https://www.article19.

9  ARTICLE 19. (2018, 17 May). Kenya: Censorship by film classification

org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/A19-GxR-2021-FINAL.pdf

board limiting free expression. https://www.article19.org/

2   Jacqueline Okuta & another v Attorney General & 2 others.  http://

resources/kenya-censorship-by-film-classification-board-limiting-

kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/130781

free-expression

134  /  Global Information Society Watch

Intelligence Service Act.10 Although Kenya accepted

be to deal with purveyors of false information over

all 26 recommendations on free expression from the

social media.15

UPR, ARTICLE 19 continues to document arrests and

In  addition  to  the  use  of  existing  laws,  Kenya

harassment  of  journalists  among  other  restrictions

also  enacted  or  attempted  to  enact  laws  to  curb  the

to free expression.11

pandemic that had a chilling effect on online free ex-

pression. In 2020, a senate ad hoc committee set up to

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on online

deal with the COVID-19 situation in Kenya developed

free expression

the Pandemic Response and Management Bill, which

Kenya  instituted  measures  to  curb  the  pandemic

set out measures to curb the pandemic.16 Part VII of the

that impacted the exercise of online free expression.

bill gave powers to the cabinet secretary to limit rights

To begin with, at the onset of the pandemic, existing

without  subjecting  these  powers  to  effective  judicial

laws were used to regulate COVID-19 related misinfor-

oversight.17 Article 36 (b) also prohibited the circulation

mation  and  disinformation  online,  including  section

of false alarm or false warning on the pandemic, but

22 and 23 of the Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes

in vague terms that failed to comply with international

Act. The former deals with publishing false data with

standards on limitations of free expression.18

the intention that it be relied on as authentic, while

The authorities in Kenya further adopted meas-

the  latter  relates  to  publishing  false  information  to

ures that impacted access to information and privacy.

cause  chaos,  panic  or  violence  among  citizens.  In

ARTICLE 19 believes the rights to free expression, ac-

March 2020, the government announced that this law

cess to information and privacy are complementary

would be used to arrest and prosecute those publish-

and  mutually  reinforcing.  This  has  led  to  the  de-

ing false information about the coronavirus.12

velopment  of  principles  relating  to  communication

By  September  2020,  ARTICLE  19  Eastern  Africa

surveillance,  mandatory  data  retention,  anonymity

had documented 10 cases where internet users, in-

and mandatory user registration, data disclosure by

cluding journalists and online communicators, were

companies and search and seizure.19 Unfortunately,

either  arrested  or  threatened  with  prosecution  for

during the first year of the pandemic, Kenya relied

violating  section  23  of  the  Computer  Misuse  and

on health legislation to expand surveillance and in

Cybercrimes  Act.13  Additionally,  ARTICLE  19  East-

totality limit the right to data protection, which im-

ern Africa also documented the arbitrary use of the

pacted online free expression.20

provisions in the two sections by the Directorate of

Through  our  project  “Unseen  Eyes,  Unheard

Criminal  Investigations  (DCI)  to  compel  detainees

Stories”, ARTICLE 19 found that the government re-

to take down or edit allegedly offending posts and

lied  on  the  Public  Health  (Prevention,  Control  and

websites.14

Suppression of Covid-19) Rules 2020 to expand the

In November 2021, the National Computer and

search  and  seizure  powers  of  health  officials;  ex-

Cybercrimes  Coordination  Committee  (NC4)  was

tend existing public CCTV systems to conduct mass

set  up  under  section  4  of  the  Computer  Misuse

surveillance  on  public  spaces  and  enforce  social

and Cybercrimes Act to aid in the implementation

distancing restrictions; use telecommunication data

of the act. During the appointment of members of

such as geolocation data to track and trace individ-

this committee, the authorities stated that the fo-

uals and enforce quarantine; as well as to deploy a

cus  of  the  government  and  the  committee  would

contact tracing app, “Jitenge MoH”, which failed to

comply with principles of data protection by design

10  ARTICLE 19. (2020).  Submission to the United Nations

Human Rights Committee, List of Issues of Kenya, 128th

15  Onyando, W. (2021, 4 November). Matiang’i warns fake news

Session. UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies. https://tbinternet.

spreaders.  Nairobi News. https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/

ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.

matiangi-warns-fake-news-spreaders

aspx?symbolno=INT%2fCCPR%2fICO%2fKEN%2f40935&Lang=en

16  Bowmans. (2020).  COVID 19: Tracking Government Response in Kenya.

11  ARTICLE 19. (2020, 28 September). HRC45:

https://www.bowmanslaw.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/

Kenya accepts UPR recommendations on free

Bowmans-Kenya-Government-Response-Tracker.pdf

expression. https://www.article19.org/resources/

17  ARTICLE 19. (2021, 19 January). Kenya: Measures to

hrc45-kenya-accepts-upr-recommendations-on-free-expression

tackle Covid-19 pandemic must not violate human

12  Mutinda, T. (2020, 19 March). COVID-19: Arrest purveyors of

rights.   https://www.article19.org/resources/

fake news – Uhuru.  The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/

kenya-measures-covid-19-must-not-violate-human-rights

news/2020-03-19-covid-19-arrest-purveyors-of-fake-news-uhuru

18  Ibid.

13  ARTICLE 19. (2020, 30 September). Kenya: Journalists attacked and

19  ARTICLE 19. (2017).  The Global Principles on Protection of Freedom

silenced during the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.article19.org/

of Expression and Privacy. https://www.article19.org/data/files/

resources/kenya-journalists-attacked

medialibrary/38657/Expression-and-Privacy-Principles-1.pdf

14  ARTICLE 19 Eastern Africa. (2021).  Freedom of Expression and the

20  ARTICLE 19 Eastern Africa, Pollicy, & KICTANet. (2021).  Unseen

Digital Environment in Eastern Africa: Monitoring Report January

Eyes, Unheard Stories: Surveillance, data protection and freedom

2020-December 2020.  https://www.article19.org/wp-content/

of expression in Kenya and Uganda during COVID 19. https://www.

uploads/2021/02/Freedom-of-Expression-and-the-Digital-

article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/ADRF-Surveillance-

Environment-in-Eastern-Africa.pdf

Report-1.pdf

KENYA / 135

and default, while also collecting more information

per cent in 2019 to 42 per cent in 2020.”27 Persons

than was necessary.21

with  disabilities  also  faced  challenges  accessing

In  addition  to  measures  adopted  by  the  author-

information  during  the  pandemic,  as  there  was  no

ities in response to the pandemic, the social impact

regular  sign  language  interpretation  for  national

of  the  pandemic  itself  had  consequences  for  online

COVID-19 briefings, or messages in Braille or other

free  expression.  The  pandemic  increased  reliance

accessible formats.28

on  digital  technologies  as  a  means  of  association,

Unfortunately,  social  media  platforms  that  were

expression, education and work, meaning more peo-

important spaces for online free expression were also

ple  spent  time  online.  However,  online  harassment

used to perpetuate misinformation and disinformation

increased,  disproportionately  affecting  women  and

on  emerging  political  events  that  happened  during

children. In May 2020, the Directorate of Criminal In-

the  pandemic.  These  include  attempts  to  amend

vestigations (DCI) raised the alarm over an increase in

Kenya’s constitution through the Building Bridges Ini-

online violence against children through forms such

tiative (BBI) or reduce the impact of credible news like

as  child  online  grooming,  cyberbullying  and  access

the Pandora Papers.29 The BBI is a state-led initiative

to  pornographic  and  sexual  content,  and  advised

to amend the constitution in a manner devoid of pub-

parents to report these cases to their local DCI offic-

lic participation and, as ruled by courts, in a manner

es.22 In the same period, ARTICLE 19 documented an

inconsistent with the Kenyan constitution.30 Research

increase in online violence against women in public

also shows the use of paid influencers to target spe-

spaces such as journalists23 and women in politics,24

cific  individuals  who  challenged  the  BBI  process  of

as  well  as  against  sexual  and  gender  minorities.25

amending the constitution and spread false informa-

Structurally silenced women such as sex workers who

tion  attacking  their  credibility,  as  well  as  the  use  of

switched to online tools to carry out their work also

verified accounts and platform algorithms on Twitter

faced online harassment through non-consensual im-

to amplify these false narratives.31

age distribution. Their customers disclosed intimate

For clarity, although the spread of misinformation

images or videos online without their consent, which

and disinformation is wrong and of strong concern,

had serious offline repercussions, as well as causing

it should be dealt with through civil and not criminal

these women to avoid digital spaces.26

remedies, which are likely to have a disproportion-

Challenges  with  digital  inclusion,  specifically

ate and chilling effect on freedom of expression. In

the availability and affordability of the internet, also

line with international standards, individuals should

affected  online  expression.  The  GSM  Association

be  given  an  opportunity  to  prove  the  truth  of  their

(GSMA)  reports  that  women  in  Kenya  were  dispro-

statements and the government should respond to

portionately  affected  by  the  pandemic,  with  some

them through full, honest and evolving communica-

having to sell their mobile handsets to sustain them-

tion with the public and careful and public correction

selves  financially.  Specifically,  the  report  states,

of the misinformation and disinformation.32

“Kenya was the only survey country where the gen-

der gap in mobile internet use has widened, from 34

27  GSMA. (2021).  The Mobile Gender Gap Report 2021. https://www.

gsma.com/r/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/The-Mobile-Gender-

Gap-Report-2021.pdf

28  Kimumwe, P. (2020, 13 April). Why Access to Information on Covid19

21  Ibid.

is Crucial to Persons with Disabilities in Africa.  CIPESA. https://

22  Directorate of Criminal Investigations. (2020, 4 May). Cyber safety

cipesa.org/2020/04/why-access-to-information-on-covid-19-is-

of children.  @DCI_Kenya (Twitter). https://twitter.com/dci_kenya/

crucial-to-persons-with-disabilities-in-africa

status/1257327420388098051?lang=en

29  The Pandora Papers refers to over 11 million confidential records

23  Muya, C. (2021).  The Law Should Work For Us: Addressing Gaps in

made public by the International Consortium of Investigative

Kenya’s Regulatory Framework to Build a Safer Internet for Women

Journalists, revealing a parallel economy that benefits the wealthy.

and Girls.  Open Internet Democracy Initiative. https://openinternet.

Madung, O., & Obilo, B. (2021, 3 November). New Research: In

global/sites/default/files/2021-09/The%20Law%20Should%20

Kenya, Disinformation Campaigns Seek to Discredit Pandora Papers.

Work%20for%20Us.pdf

Mozilla.  https://foundation.mozilla.org/en/blog/new-research-in-

24  Gichanga, M., & Orembo, L. (2020).  Trends of Online Violence

kenya-disinformation-campaigns-seek-to-discredit-pandora-papers

against Women in Politics During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Kenya.

30  Kaburu, T. K. (2021, 4 September). The Kenyan Court of Appeal’s BBI

KICTANet. https://www.kictanet.or.ke/mdocs-posts/trends-of-

Judgement-IV: The Place of Public Participation in Constitutional

online-violence-against-women-in-politics-during-the-covid19-

Amendments.  Oxford Human Rights Hub.  https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.

pandemic-in-kenya

uk/the-kenyan-court-of-appeals-bbi-judgment-iv-the-place-of-

25  ARTICLE 19. (2020, 6 October). Kenya: Free expression

public-participation-in-constitutional-amendments

on sexual orientation and gender identity is a

31  Madung, O., & Obilo, B. (2021, 2 September). Fellow Research:

human right. https://www.article19.org/resources/

Inside the Shadowy World of Disinformation-for-hire in Kenya.

kenya-free-expression-on-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity

Mozilla.  https://foundation.mozilla.org/en/blog/fellow-research-

26  Bhalla, N., & Matiashe, F. S. (2021, 27 September). African

inside-the-shadowy-world-of-disinformation-for-hire-in-kenya

sex workers face digital sex abuse as pandemic pushes them

32  Rikhter, A. (2021).  International law and policy on disinformation

online.  Reuters.  https://www.reuters.com/legal/transactional/

in the context of freedom of the media.  Office of the OSCE

african-sex-workers-face-digital-abuse-pandemic-pushes-them-

Representative on Freedom of the Media.  https://www.osce.org/

online-2021-09-27

files/f/documents/8/a/485606.pdf

136  /  Global Information Society Watch

ARTICLE 19 has also observed proposed amend-

of certain information, so that already fact-checked

ments  to  Kenya’s  Copyright  Act  and  National

information is made more available to citizens, and

Cohesion and Peace Building Act that will impact how

so that more citizens participate in fact checking, are

internet  service  providers  deal  with  copyright-re-

also necessary.

lated  content  and  hate  speech.  On  the  former,  the

Digital  rights  advocacy  is  also  concentrated  at

amendments seek to water down provisions on no-

the national and international level, with very limited

tice and takedown procedures and interfere with the

participation  from  county  or  community-based  or-

intermediary  liability  of  internet  service  providers,

ganisations. These organisations, however, express

pushing them to prefer to take down any allegedly

an  interest  to  learn  and  engage  with  digital  rights

infringing  content  and  to  police  content  online.33

issues.38 There is a need to have community-based

On  the  latter,  the  amendments  seek  to  criminalise

organisations  advocating  for  legislation  and  poli-

speech  that  is  unpleasant  even  though  this  is  not

cies  that  support  digital  inclusion  and  online  free

sufficient to be considered unlawful.34

expression, including at the subnational level in the

counties.

Conclusion

While Kenya is making efforts to promote digital

From the above, it is clear that new and existing leg-

inclusion,  like  creating  a  legal  framework  on  com-

islation was used to restrict free speech and expand

munity networks, knowledge on related regulations

surveillance. In addition, online free expression was

and how to use them to support digital connectivity

negatively  impacted  by  digital  exclusion,  misinfor-

in underserved areas is limited. There is a need to

mation and disinformation, and online harassment.

invest in the dissemination of this knowledge at the

Kenya will hold its general election in August 2022,

grassroots level. Overall, there is a need to address

which  means  that  these  challenges  are  also  likely

other  factors  deepening  digital  exclusion,  such

to be replicated or intensified in the near future. Al-

as  the  affordability  of  broadband  and  devices  and

ready Kenya has reported an increase in incidents of

taxation.

alleged hate speech by politicians that if not dealt

In  the  long  run,  unless  the  factors  identified

with may fuel offline conflict.35

above are dealt with, they will continue to negative-

A  survey  by  the  Reuters  Institute  revealed  that

ly  impact  the  exercise  of  online  free  expression  in

75%  of  news  consumers  in  Kenya  failed  to  differ-

Kenya.

entiate  between  real  and  fake  content.36  This  is

concerning  given  the  history  of  the  use  of  politi-

Action steps

cal  disinformation  and  foreign  influence  through

To address the above, the following action steps are

projects  such  as  Cambridge  Analytica  in  the  2017

recommended:

elections.37  Although  there  are  organisations  en-

•  Kenya needs to actualise the recommendations

gaged  in  fact  checking,  the  reach  of  their  work  is

it  received  during  its  UPR  and  harmonise  na-

limited  and  there  is  a  need  to  increase  the  visibil-

tional legislation with international standards to

ity  of  their  efforts.  Furthermore,  there  is  a  need  to

ensure the law provides a good environment for

intensify  media  literacy  among  Kenyan  citizens  to

the exercise of free expression.39

increase  knowledge  on  the  potential  harms  and

•  Civil society should increase knowledge of digi-

benefits  of  digital  technologies  in  relation  to  free

tal rights and encourage digital rights advocacy

expression.  Campaigns  to  intensify  fact  checking

at the grassroots level.

33  ARTICLE 19. (2022, 12 January). Kenya: Copyright law must respect

•  Civil society should increase the number of pro-

international standards of free speech. https://www.article19.

grammes on media literacy and fact checking.

org/resources/kenya-proposed-copyright-amendment-bill-must-

respect-free-speech

•  Donors  should  increase  funding  to  support

34  ARTICLE 19 Written Memorandum on the National Cohesion and

digital rights advocacy and research for organi-

Peace Building Bill 2021.

sations at both national and grassroots level that

35  Makong, B. (2021, 2 November). DPP vows action

against hate mongers abusing free speech.  Capital

will enable them to amplify their work to ensure

News. https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2021/11/

that free expression online is realised.

dpp-vows-action-against-hate-mongers-abusing-free-speech

36  Tangen, O. Jr. (2021, 31 December). Kenya: Troll trackers and the

fight against the disinformation industry.  DW Akademie.  https://

38  Consultation among human rights defenders in Kenya with the UN

www.dw.com/en/kenya-troll-trackers-and-the-fight-against-the-

Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly

disinformation-industry/a-60325620

and of association in Nairobi organised by ARTICLE 19 on 31 January

37  Warah, R. (2019, 9 August). Cambridge Analytica and the 2017

2022, held at Ufungamano House.

elections: Why has the Kenyan media remained silent?  The

39  ARTICLE 19. (2021, 28 May). Kenya: Harmonise

Elephant.  https://www.theelephant.info/features/2019/08/09/

legal framework on free expression with ICCPR

cambridge-analytica-and-the-2017-elections-why-has-the-kenyan-

recommendations. https://www.article19.org/resources/

media-remained-silent

kenya-harmonise-free-expression-with-iccpr-recommendations

KENYA / 137

KENYA

LAYERED EXCLUSIONS: THE RAPID DIGITISATION OF GOVERNMENT SERVICES

that  all  Kenyan  adults  who  had  been  registered

NBO Legal Hackers

Francis Monyango

would  be  issued  with  their  Huduma  Cards  by  De-

www.monyango.com

cember 2021.1

The initiative resulted in two High Court actions,

the  first  involving  a  petition  by  the  Kenya  Human

Introduction

Rights  Commission  (KHRC),  the  Nubian  Rights  Fo-

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the digiti-

rum and the Kenya National Commission on Human

sation of many government services in Kenya. This

Rights (KNCHR), which challenged the legality of the

digitisation  had  already  been  part  of  the  govern-

NIIMS project.

ment’s plan, with the rollout and pilot phases taking

For their part, many members of the Nubian com-

place  in  different  arms  and  departments.  But  due

munity who have been living in Kibera – a slum area

to  the  sudden  implementation  of  the  plans,  digital

of Nairobi – have found it difficult to get Kenyan cit-

rights issues have now become a priority.

izenship, even though the community has existed in

This report offers and overview of challenges to

Kenya for more than a century. The community was

the implementation of the Huduma Namba, a nation-

started when people from Sudan were brought into

al ID number system in Kenya, and situates this in

Kenya during British colonial rule. Many members of

the  context  of  government  requirements  making  it

the ethnic group have not been able to register for

mandatory  to  be  vaccinated  to  receive  government

a  Huduma  Namba  as  they  do  not  have  the  nation-

services. It argues that in the context of widespread

al  IDs  needed  to  do  so.  They  called  for  the  whole

digital exclusion in the country, what has been cre-

scheme  to  be  scrapped  given  that  the  government

ated is a situation of layered exclusions that need to

says  people  will  need  a  Huduma  Namba  to  access

be challenged by digital rights actors.

public services.2

In the end, a three-judge High Court bench com-

Huduma Namba

prised  of  Judges  Pauline  Nyamweya,  Mumbi  Ngugi

Kenya  has  established  a  digital  National  Identity

and  Weldon  Korir  validated  the  legitimacy  of  the

Integrated  Management  System  (NIIMS)  through

Huduma Namba   in a judgment that addressed var-

Executive  Order  No.  1  of  (2018)  and  by  the  Statute

ious  issues.  On  whether  the  personal  information

Law (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act, 2018, section

collected  is  excessive,  intrusive  and  disproportion-

9A. This includes the creation of the Huduma Nam-

ate,  the  Court  found  that  biometric  data  and  GPS

ba  (or  Huduma  Number),  a  unique  and  permanent

coordinates  required  in  the  amendments  are  per-

personal  identification  number  randomly  assigned

sonal,  sensitive  and  intrusive  data  that  requires

to every resident individual at birth or when an indi-

protection. And even though there was no evidence

vidual applies for official registration. It only expires

brought by the petitioners of any violations of rights

upon the death of the individual. Upon registration,

to privacy, the Court found that the amendments im-

one will be issued with a Huduma Card, which will

pose obligations on the relevant respondents to put

eventually replace the current identity card that all

in place measures to protect the personal data.

Kenyans currently have and use.

On whether there is a violation of children’s right

The  government  hopes  that  the  Huduma  Card

to  privacy,  the  High  Court  found  that  section  9A  of

will  enable  individuals  to  access  various  govern-

the Registration of Persons Act and NIIMS applies to

ment services as well as use it as a travel document

children  and  that  the  legislative  framework  on  the

within the East African region. The card will have a

protection  of  children’s  biometric  data  collected  in

person’s data merged and installed in an electronic

NIIMS is inadequate. On whether there are sufficient

chip, therefore eliminating the requirement for other

legal  safeguards  and  data  protection  frameworks,

identity  and  personal  information  documents  as  is

the case currently.

Officially, the pilot for the Huduma Cards started

1  https://www.hudumanamba.go.ke/faqs

2  BBC. (2020, 31 January). Huduma Namba: Kenya court halts

on 1 December 2020, and countrywide distribution

biometric ID over data fears.  BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/

started in February 2021. The government expected

news/world-africa-51324954

138  /  Global Information Society Watch

the Court found that while there is a legal framework

necessary in a society where there is a high level of

for  the  collection  and  processing  of  personal  data,

digital  exclusion,  and  a  corresponding  low  level  of

adequate protection of the data requires the opera-

awareness of digitising personal identity.

tionalisation of this legal framework.

However, since there was no specific regulatory

Mandatory vaccination and effects of

framework that governs the operations and security

digitisation of government services

of NIIMS, the Court found that the legal framework

The  government  is  on  its  post-pandemic  “build-

for  the  operations  of  NIIMS  was  inadequate,  and

ing  back  better”  journey  and  had  directed  that

posed  a  risk  to  the  security  of  data  that  would  be

all  who  will  want  to  access  in-person  government

collected in the system.

services from 21 December 2021 must be fully vac-

On  discrimination  against  the  Nubian  com-

cinated. This directive, which was not promulgated

munity,  the  Court  stated  that  they  were  unable

or published in the Kenya Gazette,5 has digital rights

to  discern  violations  of  the  right  to  equality  and

implications as the vaccination certificates in Kenya

non-discrimination  from  the  evidence  presented

are digital. On the one hand, this was likely to result

before  them.  They  stated  that  should  there  be

in  limitations  to  human  rights,  in  a  country  where

challenges  in  other  statutes  or  provisions,  such

sectors of society have poor access to the internet

challenges cannot properly be raised in the NIIMS

and low digital literacy. It was also not clear if e-gov-

case, in which the legislation in contention is en-

ernment services will be available to those without

tirely different. In the same breath, on exclusion,

vaccination certificates.

the  Court  found  that  there  is  a  need  for  a  clear

Among  others,  unvaccinated  Kenyans  were  to

regulatory framework that addresses the possibil-

be  excluded  from  or  not  able  to  access  universi-

ity of exclusion in NIIMS. Despite this possibility,

ties,  hospital  and  prison  visitations,  immigration

they  did  not  find  it  as  a  sufficient  reason  to  find

services,  the  Kenya  Revenue  Authority  (KRA),  the

NIIMS unconstitutional.

National  Transport  Service  Authority  (NTSA),  and

The  Court  also  ruled  that  there  was  sufficient

port services.

public participation in the process to amend the Reg-

While the government offered the option of on-

istration of Persons Act to create the NIIMS, and to

line  access  to  services,  this  raises  the  problem  of

justify miscellaneous amendments to related acts.3

access to the internet and digital devices for the av-

However, the High Court struck down the gov-

erage Kenyan.

ernment’s  decision  to  roll  out  Huduma  Cards  due

Within  days  following  the  announcement,  the

to  violations  of  the  Data  Protection  Act  (2019)  on

High Court suspended the government directive.

14 October 2021. The Court found that the govern-

ment  had  started  collecting  personal  data  from

Access to the internet and digital devices

Kenyans  without  first  determining  how  it  would

One of the biggest challenges in the digitisation of

protect that data and that it had “not appreciated

government  services  is  access  to  the  internet.  The

the import and the extent of the application of the

uptake  of  internet  services  increased  in  2020  in

Data  Protection  Act  with  respect  to  the  collection

light  of  COVID-19  pandemic  mitigation  measures

and  processing  of  data  under  the  National  Inte-

that  greatly  reduced  physical  contact.  To  meet  the

grated  Identity  Management  System.”  The  court

internet demand, bandwidth capacity was increased

compelled the government to complete a data pro-

by 29.6% to 8.1 million Mbps in 2020. The increase

tection impact assessment, as required by the Data

of capacity allowed networks to handle the sudden

Protection  Act,  prior  to  processing  data  or  rolling

surges and new patterns in internet traffic.6 Accord-

out Huduma Cards.4

ing to the DataReportal 2021 report on Kenya, there

This  second  judgment  on  the  project  is  yet  to

were 21.75 million internet users in Kenya in January

be  fully  implemented.  The  judgment  strengthens

2021 and internet penetration stood at 40%.7

the  prerequisites  contained  in  the  Data  Protection

The 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census

Act  for  the  implementation  of  the  digital  identity

results  show  that  20,694,315  of  individuals  aged

card. It also highlights that a proper understanding

three years and older owned a mobile phone. More

of  the  effects  of  digitisation  of  people’s  identity  is

females (10,425,040) than males (10,268,651) owned

a mobile phone. The data also shows that 22.6% of

3  Nubian Rights Forum & 2 others v Attorney General & 6 others;

Child Welfare Society & 9 others (Interested Parties) [2020] eKLR.

4  Kenya Human Rights Commission. (2021, 18 October). Consortium

5  http://kenyalaw.org/kenya_gazette

applauds court judgement declaring Huduma Cards illegal; calls

6  Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2021).  Economic Survey 2021.

for further reforms. https://www.khrc.or.ke/2015-03-04-10-37-01/

https://www.knbs.or.ke/economic-survey-2021

press-releases/754-consortium-applauds-court-judgement-

7  Kemp, S. (2021, 11 February). Digital 2021: Kenya.  DataReportal.

declaring-huduma-cards-illegal-calls-for-further-reforms.html

https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-kenya

KENYA / 139

individuals aged three years and older used the inter-

absence  of  a  strategy  specifically  on  this  suggests

net, while 10.4% used a computer. The proportion of

the need for the government to better consider last-

the population aged 15 years and older who searched

mile factors impacting on access before rolling out

and bought goods and services online was 4.3%.8

e-government platforms.

These statistics show that 60% of Kenyans can-

Digital exclusion is just one form of exclusion in

not  access  government  services  that  are  available

Kenya, and the case of the Nubian community show

online. Moreover, of those that do access the inter-

that exclusions are multi-layered and intersectional.

net,  a  relatively  small  percentage  actually  use  the

Similarly, by introducing the compulsory vaccination

internet for accessing goods and services. Therefore,

e-certificate  to  access  government  services,  mar-

accessing  government  services  online  is  already  a

ginalised  groups  and  communities  are  potentially

challenge  for  most  Kenyans  and  the  sudden  digiti-

further isolated from these services.

sation of government services is leading to further

Transitioning  to  a  digital  identification  sys-

exclusion despite the intention being inclusion.

tem  without  first  addressing  the  existing  problem

of  widespread  discrimination  will  not  solve  these

Conclusion

problems. It will, rather, increase discrimination and

One can see that COVID-19 has resulted in Kenya ac-

exclusion.13 The result now is that civil society needs

celerating its journey in digitising government through

to push back against the digitisation agenda, firstly,

projects that had started before the pandemic, such

to properly understand the layered exclusions that it

as the Huduma Namba and other e-government ser-

implies, and secondly, to ensure that any necessary

vices,  including  eCitizen,9  the  Transport  Information

safeguards  to  mitigate  these  exclusions  are  imple-

Management  System,10  the  Kenya  Revenue  Authori-

mented retrospectively.

ty’s iTax online service,11 and the National Education

Management Information System (NEMIS).12

Action steps

The  key  rights  issues  that  this  digitisation  pro-

Civil society organisations need to:

cess highlights concern privacy and exclusion, with

•  Create  awareness-raising  material  to  inform

two  judgments  from  the  High  Court  handed  down

people  on  their  right  to  privacy  and  to  support

with respect to the Huduma Namba project.

the communities that have been systematically

What is clear is that the pandemic has rushed the

excluded.  This  could  be  done  in  collaboration

plans for digitisation and pushed policy implemen-

with relevant regulators and government bodies.

tation to short-cut the steps that were necessary to

A potential ally is the Office of the Data Protec-

ensure  that  these  plans  were  inclusive,  and  came

tion Commissioner, which has shown interest in

with the proper privacy safeguards. That the digitisa-

creating public awareness on the right to privacy.

tion plans were problematic was already recognised

•  Form  alliances  with  organisations  representing

prior to the pandemic – in 2015, the Commissioner of

excluded  communities  to  strengthen  advocacy

Administrative  Justice  declared  a  crisis  in  the  issu-

collectives, and to engage meaningfully in litiga-

ance of legal documentation in Kenya.

tion where necessary.

Due  to  a  lack  of  adequate  digital  literacy  that  is

needed  to  enable  people  to  access  government  ser-

•  Engage legislators on the human rights implica-

vices online, many use the help of intermediaries such

tions  of  the  Huduma  Namba .   This  is  especially

as cybercafé staff. The challenge with this is that these

the case now that the Huduma Bill14 is in Parlia-

people – who are not officially trained or mandated to

ment.  Civil  society  organisations  need  to  push

serve as government intermediaries – then have access

for laws and implementation processes that will

to a significant amount of personal information and are

not result in privacy breaches and the intersec-

a potential weak link in the data privacy chain.

tional exclusion of people.

Digital literacy training would have helped in at

least  attempting  to  ensure  that  people  using  com-

13  Nubian Rights Forum & 2 others v Attorney General & 6 others;

puting  devices  for  government  services  would  not

Child Welfare Society & 9 others (Interested Parties) [2020].

need  informal  third-party  assistance.  However,  the

14  The Huduma Bill, 2021 proposes that all Kenyans receive the Huduma

Namba  and  subsequently  a  Huduma  Card. The  Huduma  Namba  is

based on the National Integrated Identity Management System (NIIMS)

8  Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2019).  Kenya Population

database and will be linked to all government services. Without the

and Housing Census: Volume IV.  https://www.knbs.or.ke/

Huduma Card, a person will not be able to get government services.

download/2019-kenya-population-and-housing-census-volume-iv-

Part of the Bill reads, “Every resident individual shall have a mandatory

distribution-of-population-by-socio-economic-characteristics

obligation  to  present  their  Huduma  Namba  to  be  issued  with  a

9  https://www.ecitizen.go.ke

passport, apply for a driving license, register a mobile phone number,

register as a voter, pay taxes, transact in the financial market, open

10  https://tims.ntsa.go.ke/login_csp.jsp

a bank account, register a company or a public benefit organization,

11  https://itax.kra.go.ke/KRA-Portal

transfer or make any dealings in land, register for power connection,

12  http://nemis.education.go.ke

access universal healthcare services, or register a marriage.”

140  /  Global Information Society Watch

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF

INTRODUCTION OF SURVEILLANCE TECHNOLOGIES IN THE NAME OF

RESPONDING TO INFECTIOUS DISEASES

In order to conduct a precise epidemiological in-

Korean Progressive Network Jinbonet

Byoung-il Oh

vestigation,  interviews  with  infected  patients  were

https://www.jinbo.net

conducted, and objective data was collected to track

patients’  past  movements  and  identify  close  con-

tacts,  such  as  mobile  phone  location  information,

Introduction

the use of credit and transportation cards, and CCTV

footage. In this process, sensitive personal informa-

International  organisations  including  the  United

tion such as location information and information on

Nations and human rights institutions in many coun-

habits  and  personal  preferences  and  relationships

tries have proposed human rights principles in the

was inevitably collected and processed. As the ob-

face of the COVID-19 pandemic. Basic rights may be

session  with  the  accuracy  of  identifying  infection

restricted  to  achieve  public  health  goals,  but  any

routes  and  contacts  increased,  the  vast  collection

policies  adopted  to  achieve  these  goals  should  be

of personal information and the introduction of ad-

based  on  law,  should  use  the  least  rights-infring-

vanced analysis technologies such as profiling and

ing  means  to  achieve  their  purpose,  and  should

facial recognition were required.

not be imposed arbitrarily or applied in a way that

In  addition,  the  entire  nation  was  regarded  as

discriminates.

“potential patients”, so people’s movements had to

Korea  is  one  of  the  countries  that  has  intro-

be recorded in advance for epidemiological investi-

duced and operated various monitoring and tracking

gations that may have been required in the future. In

systems  in  the  name  of  controlling  and  preventing

order to ensure the certainty of quarantine, criminal

infectious  diseases.  Rights-infringing  policies  that

penalties were imposed for violating the Infectious

would not have been introduced before the COVID-19

Disease  Control  and  Prevention  Act,  and  technical

crisis were introduced without sufficient discussion

measures  such  as  self-quarantine  apps  and  wrist-

due  to  urgency.  Human  rights  organisations  have

bands were also introduced.

voiced their criticism, but not many of their demands

Such  technologies  that  collect  personal  in-

have been reflected in actual policies.

formation  and  track  people  limit  the  right  to  the

Although  the  policies  discussed  in  this  report

self-determination  of  personal  information  and  the

changed  after  Omicron  became  the  dominant  vari-

right to privacy. In the face of an infectious disease

ant and the number of confirmed patients with the

crisis, these rights restrictions can be justified to a

virus increased rapidly – thereby making the policies

certain extent, but they need to be within the limits

ineffective – there is still a need to evaluate the pro-

allowed by international human rights norms.

cess and impact of the invasive quarantine policies

Could Korea’s quarantine policies be justified in

that  were  put  in  place.  Otherwise,  rights-infringing

light of the international norms?

policies implemented in the past can be justified as

meeting human rights standards, and when similar

Monitoring technologies and policies

situations occur in the future, further rights-infring-

introduced in the name of responding to

ing  policies  can  be  introduced  easily  without

infectious diseases

sufficient consideration.

Introduction and advancement of the COVID-19

Korea’s quarantine model

Epidemiological Investigation Support System

Korea’s  quarantine  model  for  responding  to

On 26 March 2020, the Ministry of Land, Infrastruc-

COVID-19  was  described  as  the  “3T”  model  (test-

ture and Transport, the Ministry of Science and ICT,

trace-treat).  This  meant  the  model  involved  the

and the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agen-

diagnostic  testing  of  people  suspected  to  have

cy (KDCA) introduced the COVID-19 Epidemiological

contracted the virus, the identification of contacts

Investigation  Support  System. The  system  was  de-

through  precise  epidemiological  investigations  of

veloped  based  on  a  smart  city  technology  system,

infected patients, and the isolation and treatment

and automates epidemiological investigation proce-

of patients and contacts.

dures.  It  links  28  institutions,  including  the  KDCA,

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF / 141

the Credit Finance Association, three telecommuni-

information from mobile operators. The list of peo-

cations companies, and 22 credit card companies.

ple who stayed for more than 30 minutes between

Currently,  the  KDCA  is  working  with  the  Minis-

midnight and 5 a.m. every day from 24 April to 6 May

try of Science and ICT and the National Information

was provided based on their access logs to 17 base

Society  Agency  to  develop  an  “in-depth  epidemio-

stations  around  the  club.  In  this  way,  the  number

logical investigation support system” that enhances

of  people  selected  reached  10,905.  It  is  obviously

the  current  system.  The  in-depth  epidemiological

far-fetched to consider more than 10,000 people as

investigation  support  system  plans  to  further  link

suspected patients of an infectious disease in such a

personal information held by various ministries such

short period of time, given that it does not align with

as resident registration information (Ministry of the

data collected in the virus’s infection trajectory.

Interior  and  Safety),  immigration  records  (Ministry

Originally,  investigative  agencies  have  used

of Justice), medical institution access history (Health

so-called  “base  station  investigations”  to  identify

Insurance  Review  and  Assessment  Service)  and

people around a specific base station (e.g. to iden-

health  insurance  subscriber  information  (National

tify  participants  in  rallies  held  in  a  specific  area).

Health Insurance Service).

However, on 28 June 2018, the Constitutional Court

Meanwhile, the city of Bucheon is developing an

ruled  that  base  station  investigations  were  uncon-

intelligent  epidemiological  system  using  artificial

stitutional, judging that it was against the principle

intelligence  and  CCTV  footage. The  project  aims  to

of proportionality to allow investigative agencies to

analyse close contacts through facial recognition in

receive  large  amounts  of  communication  metadata

street CCTV footage controlled by the city and identi-

just  because  it  was  necessary  for  an  investigation.

fy contacts through mobile phone numbers recorded

Since  then,  the  National  Assembly  has  revised  the

in nearby mobile base stations.

Communications  Secret  Protection  Act  in  the  di-

The  epidemiological  investigation  support  sys-

rection of strengthening the requirements for base

tem is linked to a number of databases and enables

station  investigations  and  stipulating  procedures

profiling  based  on  various  personal  information.

to inform subjects of the investigation. However, in

Through  this,  other  sensitive  information  such  as

the case of collecting base station access informa-

sexual  preferences,  religion  and  union  member-

tion under the Infectious Disease Prevention Act, it

ship  can  also  be  derived.  For  example,  individual

is not necessary to obtain permission from the court.

characteristics  can  be  inferred  through  whether  a

The requirements for providing information are not

confirmed patient has visited a gay bar or a specific

strict, and there is no procedure to inform subjects.

religious facility.

The legal basis of the epidemiological investiga-

Introduction of the wristband location

tion  support  system  is  also  unclear. The  Infectious

tracking device

Disease Prevention Act only has grounds for collect-

On  27  April  2020,  the  government  introduced  a

ing  personal  information  processed  through  this

wristband called “safety band”, which was linked to

system, but does not stipulate the system itself. Am-

the  Self-Quarantine  Safety  Protection  App,  for  the

biguous regulations, such as the current legislation,

purpose of preventing people from leaving self-quar-

can justify the introduction of an intelligent epidemi-

antine  areas  without  authorisation.  The  app  has  a

ological system such as the one being developed in

motion  detection  function,  so  if  there  is  no  mobile

Bucheon. However, monitoring CCTV with the naked

phone movement for two hours, a notification win-

eye  is  different  from  that  using  facial  recognition

dow  appears  twice,  and  if  there  is  no  confirmation

technology.

from the quarantined person, a dedicated public of-

ficial calls to check up on him or her.

Trawling base station access information

A safety band is a location tracking electronic de-

Health authorities have used base station access infor-

vice similar to an electronic anklet attached to sexual

mation in the name of identifying potentially infected

violence offenders. In conjunction with the app, if a

people when there is a concern that a large number of

quarantined person deviates more than a certain dis-

infected people may be found in a specific area. It is

tance or damages the wristband, a dedicated official

a method of identifying people around a mobile base

is notified. The government says that wearing the de-

station  through  a  list  of  mobile  phone  numbers  con-

vice is based on consent, but if people do not agree

nected to the base station in a specific area.

with wearing the wristband, they will be quarantined

For example, in order to identify the people who

at a facility and charged the cost of quarantine.

were  nearby  after  a  mass  infection  at  the  Itaewon

The safety band can constantly monitor the loca-

Club in Seoul, in early May 2020, the Seoul Metro-

tion of individuals, resulting in serious implications

politan  government  requested  base  station  access

for  privacy.  Although  Article  42  of  the  Infectious

142  /  Global Information Society Watch

Disease Prevention Act allows the collecting of loca-

this  puts  every  move  of  all  citizens  on  record  and

tion information, it is difficult to say that it creates

traceable at any time. It is questionable whether the

the  specific  legal  basis  for  the  safety  band.  In  the

establishment  of  a  regular  surveillance  system  for

case  of  electronic  anklets  attached  to  sexual  vio-

the entire nation can be justified at a time when it

lence offenders, their use is based on the Electronic

is possible to track patients’ movements and iden-

Device Attachment Act. In addition, strict procedures

tify  contacts  through  other  means,  such  as  mobile

exist  for  their  use,  such  as  an  investigation  by  the

phones and credit cards.

probation office before requesting an attachment or-

der, a prosecutor’s request for an attachment order,

Conclusion

and an attachment order from the court. In compari-

In light of international human rights standards, Ko-

son, the safety band policy does not comply with the

rea’s quarantine policy as a whole has the following

principle of legality.

problems:

It  is  also  insufficient  in  terms  of  the  necessi-

•  First, excessively invasive technologies and poli-

ty  and  proportionality  principles.  The  government

cies were introduced in violation of the principles

forced self-quarantined people to install the app and

of  necessity  and  proportionality.  Base  station

assigned  dedicated  public  officials  to  check  in  on

access information was collected through trawl-

them on a regular basis, and the authorities threat-

ing;  the  wearing  of  the  safety  band,  a  location

ened to criminally punish violators. Since there are

tracking device, was effectively enforced; and an

already quarantine controls in place and the propor-

entry log was required to record the movements

tion of violators is not high, it is difficult to justify the

of the entire population.

introduction of rights-infringing measures such as a

safety band.

•  Second, many of the policies introduced do not

meet  the  principle  of  legality.  The  introduction

Mandatory entry log

of  the  COVID-19  Epidemiological  Investigation

Support System, the use of base station access

As in other countries in the world, the Korean gov-

information, and the Self-Quarantine Safety Pro-

ernment ordered that a list of people entering and

tection App and safety band lack legal grounds.

leaving  certain  facilities  such  as  restaurants  and

Some policies, such as the mandatory entry log,

cafés be kept to facilitate the identification of con-

were  implemented  ahead  of  any  legal  basis,

tacts when infections occur. Originally implemented

which was then created through the revision of

without  a  clear  legal  basis,  the  Infectious  Disease

the Infectious Disease Prevention Act.

Prevention Act was revised on 12 August 2020, spec-

ifying that the head of a local government can order

•  Third,  the  supervisory  functions  of  the  Nation-

“compliance  with  quarantine  guidelines  such  as

al  Human  Rights  Commission  of  Korea  and  the

making a list of entrants and wearing masks.”

Personal  Information  Protection  Commission

Various  methods  are  being  used  to  keep  these

were  insufficient.  The  National  Human  Rights

lists, such as relying on handwritten lists, electronic

Commission of Korea did not actively respond to

entry logs, and safe calls (a method in which the call-

the overall human rights violations of quarantine

er’s mobile phone number is recorded when calling

policies,  other  than  announcing  its  position  on

a unique phone number for each facility). On 1 July

the  disclosure  of  people’s  movements  and  the

2020, the government introduced a QR code-based

safety  band.  The  Personal  Information  Protec-

electronic  entry  log  system  called  KI-Pass.  This  is

tion Commission played its role as a supervisory

because people did not accurately record their per-

body  to  some  extent,  but  failed  to  go  beyond

sonal information on a handwritten list.

this by providing detailed measures for improv-

The electronic entry log system operates as fol-

ing the legality, necessity and proportionality of

lows: a user receives a QR code from Naver or Kakao,

quarantine  measures.  If  the  supervisory  body

two Korean portal giants, and provides the QR code

does not play its role, then invasive policies can

when entering a facility. The facility information and

be justified.

QR  code  are  then  recorded  in  the  Social  Security

•  Fourth,  Korea’s  quarantine  policy  was  possible

Information Service. The record of visits will be de-

because  a  social  monitoring  system  that  could

stroyed after four weeks for the protection of privacy.

easily track the activities of people was already

The mandatory entry log is a general monitoring

in place, such as the resident registration number

measure targeting all citizens, and is not only con-

system, and the nationwide installation of CCTV

fined to specific subjects in certain situations, such

cameras. Without the information that had been

as people who have contracted an infectious disease

accumulated and stored through these systems,

or  are  suspected  to  have  done  so.  In  other  words,

the  Korean  quarantine  model  would  not  have

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF / 143

been possible. From the government’s response

Action steps

to  COVID-19,  we  can  easily  see  how  vulnerable

The following steps are necessary in Korea:

Korea’s social system is to surveillance.

•  Korea’s  quarantine  policy  needs  to  be  critically

Korean  civil  society  has  voiced  its  opinion  on  the

evaluated  from  the  perspective  of  international

human  rights  aspects  of  quarantine  policy,  but

human rights norms.

sufficient discussions have not always taken place

•  In  the  face  of  an  infectious  disease  crisis,  the

due to the urgency of quarantine. Even the Nation-

quarantine  authorities  should  establish  a  gov-

al  Assembly  only  played  a  role  in  justifying  hasty

ernance system that can reflect the voices of civil

quarantine  measures  carried  out  by  the  admin-

society and national human rights institutions.

istration  through  post-mortem  revisions.  Unless

the  problems  of  policies  already  introduced  are

•  The Infectious Disease Prevention Act should be

reviewed,  similar  and  even  more  restrictive  meas-

revised so that quarantine policies can be imple-

ures outlined in this report can be justified in future

mented  from  the  perspective  of  human  rights,

infectious disease crises.

including the right to privacy.

•  Civil  society  needs  to  address  the  breaches  of

rights  in  amended  laws  and  policies  in  a  sus-

tained way so that any rights-infringing revisions

are properly addressed ahead of any new health

emergency.

144  /  Global Information Society Watch

LATIN AMERICA

DIGITAL RIGHTS AND THE PANDEMIC: LEARNING FROM PERSPECTIVES AND

STRATEGIES FROM LATIN AMERICA

governments  started  to  impose  different  measures

Derechos Digitales

Michel Roberto de Souza, Laura Nathalie Hernández

to  both  prevent  the  spread  of  the  virus  (like  quar-

Rivera and Jamila Venturini

antines, face masks and other sanitary restrictions)

https://www.derechosdigitales.org

and  inform  the  population  on  its  advance,  some-

times relying on technological tools or surveillance

systems  (such  as  automated  exposure  notifica-

Introduction

tions,2  facial  recognition,  mandatory  data  sharing,

Problematic  solutions  were  implemented  by  dif-

etc.).  Alongside  the  deployment  of  health-related

ferent  states  as  part  of  their  health  strategies  to

technologies  by  state  and  private  parties,  digitisa-

control the spread of COVID-19. Research carried out

tion  strategies  were  developed  or  implemented  in

by different organisations since the first months of

areas such as security, education, social protection

the  pandemic  in  Latin  America  raised  serious  con-

and  work.  However,  these  measures  lacked  robust

cerns  related  to  potential  privacy  violations,  lack

strategies  to  ensure  human  rights  were  respected

of  transparency,  surveillance,  excessive  processing

and vulnerable communities protected.

of  personal  data  in  contact  monitoring  and  tracing

While governments had already been digitising

applications,  and  associated  risks  to  other  funda-

many of their services, the pandemic, in several cas-

mental  rights.1  In  trying  to  combat  the  pandemic,

es, forced the transfer of activities online, from the

states placed their trust excessively in technological

purchase of food and basic supplies to access to and

tools,  without  carefully  assessing  potential  human

participation in educational, labour and cultural ac-

rights violations.

tivities. With the rush to lead their populations into a

In  a  context  where  techno-optimism  is  the

new “normal”, little attention was given to the devel-

dominant  discourse,  issues  such  as  the  increase

opment  of  connectivity  and  digital  literacy  policies

in exposure notification apps, the use of facial rec-

that allowed equality in the enjoyment of rights. At

ognition  technologies,  mandatory  data  sharing,

the  same  time,  the  widespread  use  of  surveillance

automation and artificial intelligence (AI) have pro-

technologies was not followed by proper safeguards

voked a lot of debate in Latin America over the past

and discussions, raising concerns and gaining atten-

two years. Likewise, debates on internet access poli-

tion from the regional digital rights community.

cies have also been foregrounded in this period.

At the other extreme, communities such as Indig-

In  this  report  we  examine  how  digital  rights

enous groups reinforced their historical demands for

advocacy  priorities  and  advocacy  actions  in  Latin

access to the internet as a basic right that would en-

America have shifted due to the pandemic. We iden-

sure their safety through access to information and

tify several new terrains for engagement, including

services during quarantine. In Colombia3 and Brazil4

the  human  rights  consequences  of  public  interest

they went to courts to force the state to protect their

technologies, the usefulness of litigation in protect-

rights  to  health,  life,  food  security,  personal  and

ing  rights,  and  the  need  to  rethink  internet  access

policies in the region.

2  For more information on the development of geolocation and

Latin America and pandemics in a glimpse

automated COVID-19 exposure notification apps, see Venturini, J.,

Canales, M. P., et al. (2021). Op. cit.

As the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a

3  Albarracín, M., Bacca, P. I., Quigua, D., Olaya, C., Barragán, M., &

global pandemic on 11 March 2020, Latin American

Medina, J. (2021, 12 October). Solicitamos a la Corte Constitucional

que tutele los derechos vulnerados a los pueblos indígenas del

macroterritorio del Yuruparí.  Dejusticia. https://www.dejusticia.

org/litigation/solicitamos-a-la-corte-constitucional-que-tutele-los-

1  Hernández, L. (2021).  Uso de Tecnologías para el combate de la

derechos-vulnerados-a-los-pueblos-indigenas-del-macroterritorio-

pandemia. Datos personales en América Latina. Global Network

del-yurupari

Initiative .  https://globalnetworkinitiative.org/wp-content/

4  Mattia Debastiani, J., Pilau Sobrinho, L., & Calgaro, C. (2020).

uploads/2021/11/COVID19-LAC-SPA.pdf; Venturini, J., et al.  (2021).

Covid-19 y políticas anti-indigenistas en el Brasil: el caso ADPF

Informe Observatorio Covid-19 del Consorcio Al Sur: Un análisis crítico

709/DF para el reconocimiento del derecho a existir . Nuevo

de las tecnologías deplegadas en América Latina contra la pandemia.

Derecho,  16(27), 1-21. http://bibliotecadigital.iue.edu.co/xmlui/

Al Sur. https://www.alsur.lat/sites/default/files/2021-06/Informe%20

bitstream/handle/20.500.12717/2255/1365-Texto%20del%20

Observatorio%20Covid-19%20del%20Consorcio%20Al%20Sur(2).pdf

art%C3%ADculo-5202-1-10-20201130.pdf?sequence=1

LATIN AMERICA / 145

collective security, water and a healthy environment.

applications did not respect the principle of legality in

In  Brazil,  the  Federal  Supreme  Court  gave  interim

the material sense, insofar as limitations to rights were

orders to the federal government to create an effec-

imposed through decisions of an executive power or

tive and urgent public policy to support Indigenous

through  administrative  decisions.  The  authors  also

peoples  due  to  the  new  coronavirus.5  One  of  the

pointed out that they found no evidence that states

recommendations  made  by  the  National  Council  of

had carried out human rights impact assessments pri-

Justice  was  to  immediately  install  “communication

or to the implementation of the technologies.9

infrastructure (internet) in villages and surveillance

In this scenario, different Latin American civil so-

posts to support inspection operations and monitor-

ciety organisations issued recommendations so that

ing of invasions in the area.”6

the main problems could be corrected. Al Sur recom-

In the following section, we present examples of

mended  paying  better  attention  to  inequalities  in

how civil society has dealt with the issues of digital

connectivity;  human  rights  impact  assessments  to

rights  during  the  pandemic  in  Latin  America  in  the

ensure responsible decision making by governments

face of the identified threats.

and companies; the need for good data governance;

and public transparency in the selection and deploy-

Technologies and human rights:

ment of the technologies.10 Data Privacy Brasil also

An updated look over the past two years

issued a series of principles and recommendations

Evidenced-based knowledge production

for  the  legitimate  use  of  personal  data  in  the  fight

to inform policy making

against the pandemic.11

A series of problems were identified in the way mobile

Advancing data protection through strategic

applications and other systems were implemented in

litigation

Latin  American  countries  as  part  of  their  respective

While Argentina tries to oblige citizens to use their

health  strategies  during  the  pandemic.7  A  broader

National Identity Document (DNI) in a hybrid version

study led by the Al Sur Consortium analysed 16 apps

of the National Census of Populations, Households

and identified problematic points, such as: inequality

and Dwellings to be carried out this year, civil society

in access to the internet and technologies; the exist-

resists. The Vía Libre Foundation filed a  habeas data

ence  of  different  applications  in  the  same  country;

appeal,12  arguing  that  the  incorporation  of  the  DNI

a lack of certainty about whether their use was vol-

in the census could affect the rights to privacy and

untary; a lack of detail about the security measures

self-determination  in  terms  of  personal  data,  and

adopted in the applications; a reluctance to make the

apps’ source codes open and transparent; few guaran-

tees of effective control over the use of personal data

submitted by users; and a lack of clarity about which

9  Yael, researching the Coronavirus UY app in Uruguay, in addition

institutions  could  access  the  data  and  under  what

to agreeing with some of the findings of the previously cited

studies, revealed another negative aspect in the implementation

circumstances and conditions.8 The study concluded

of this type of tool, which is not exclusive to the Uruguayan case.

that  certain  aspects  need  to  be  considered  when

First of all, for the design and implementation of the application,

no public call was made; rather, it was done through direct

the  use  of  technologies  imposes  risks  to  the  exer-

dealings with the company GeneXus, and no open call was made

cise  of  fundamental  rights.  It  showed  that  several

to evaluate the competitiveness of this option against other

possible options, either. Secondly, there were no evaluation and

monitoring mechanisms for the tool. Yael, D. (2021).  Coronavirus UY

y la tecnología como solución a la pandemia. Derechos Digitales.

5  APIB. (2020).  Nossa luta é pela vida - Covid-19 e povos indígenas:

https://ia.derechosdigitales.org/casos/uruguay-coronavirus-uy

o enfrentamento das violências durante a pandemia. https://

10  Venturini, J., et al. (2021). Op. cit.

emergenciaindigena.apiboficial.org/files/2020/12/APIB_

11  These recommendations include: the need for technical and scientific

nossalutaepelavida_v7PT.pdf

reasoning about the necessity and efficiency of the use of personal

6  CNJ. (2020). Relatório analítico 6/2020 – Anexo Relatório do ISA-

data; the need for laws and other specific legal regulations to support

IPAM e Ofício nº 653/GAB. https://redir.stf.jus.br/paginadorpub/

cooperation between the public and private sectors; all measures

paginador.jsp?docTP=TP&docID=754595575&prcID=5952986

employed must be guided by the least possible intrusion on privacy;

7  A study covering six Latin American countries identified the following

definition of the purpose of data processing must be specific; the life

problems: security issues and privacy risks in the design of the

cycle of the data must be well defined, that is, there must be a time

tools; excessive data collection in the early stages of application;

limit for the storage of the data; measures to contain privacy risks must

the excessive proliferation and overlap of applications in the same

be defined in all cases; maximum transparency regarding measures

country; a lack of clarity in linking the use of these tools with a

and their governance must be provided; and open source technologies

general health strategy; contradictory provisions on the mandatory

should preferably be used. Bioni, B., Zanatta, R., Monteiro, R., &

use of tools; a lack of certainty about how long the personal

Rielli, M. (2020).  Privacidade e pandemia: recomendações para o uso

data collected will be in databases; limited transparency on the

legítimo de dados no combate à COVID-19.  Data Privacy Brasil. https://

development and implementation of the tools and on the agreements

www.dataprivacybr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/relatorio_

signed between private entities and public administrations; and

privacidade_e_pandemia_final.pdf

questionable appropriateness of the tools given the digital divide in

12  Fundación Via Libre. (2022, 1 February). Nos presentamos ante la

some countries. Hernández, L. (2021). Op. cit.

justicia para lograr un #CensoSinDNI. https://www.vialibre.org.ar/

8  Venturini, J., et al.  (2021). Op. cit.

nos-presentamos-ante-la-justicia-para-lograr-un-censosindni

146  /  Global Information Society Watch

conflicted with the Argentine personal data protec-

Users  (PANAUT).17  The  amendment  compelled  the

tion legislation. They argue that by including the DNI

Federal Telecommunications Institute to install, op-

in the census, personal and sensitive data would be

erate, regulate and maintain the PANAUT, as well as

collected, which violates the protection of personal

obliging  concessionaires  (entities  that  have  been

data,  since  the  collection  of  certain  types  of  infor-

granted  concessions  to  operate)  and  authorised

mation  depends  on  express  and  informed  consent

telecommunications service providers to collect vari-

and  cannot  be  mandatory.  The  contradiction  was

ous personal data, including sensitive data, of users.

generated  because  the  census  is  mandatory,  so  in

Civil society also presented a brief as  amicus curiae

practice, it would also be mandatory to include the

in this case.18

DNI information. In this case, the National Institute

of Statistics and Censuses finally decided to remove

Understanding and resisting surveillance

the question about the DNI from the census form.13

technologies

In  Brazil,  besides  the  approval  of  the  Brazilian

Solutions  based  on  artificial  intelligence  (AI)  can

Data Protection Law, two cases judged by the Bra-

create  serious  violations  of  human  rights.  Facial

zilian  Supreme  Court  represent  important  privacy

recognition  systems,  for  example,  can  suffer  from

developments.  The  first  court  action  followed  Pro-

biases  that  result  in  discrimination  and  barriers  to

visional  Measure  954  in  April  2020,  which  made

the effective enjoyment of the rights of certain peo-

it  mandatory  for  telecommunication  operators  to

ple  belonging  to  historically  marginalised  groups.

share  personal  data  with  the  Brazilian  Institute  of

Also,  the  growing  use  of  video  surveillance  sys-

Geography  and  Statistics.  The  Brazilian  Bar  Asso-

tems and the use of biometric data represent a new

ciation  challenged  the  measure  in  a  constitutional

challenge to the privacy of individuals that must be

lawsuit. In May, the Supreme Court decided that it

addressed  from  a  multistakeholder  and  multidisci-

was  unconstitutional  and  determined  that  person-

plinary perspective, adapting advocacy strategies to

al  data  protection  was  a  fundamental  right.14  The

the evolution of technologies.

second case questioned a unified database with cit-

When used for surveillance purposes, such tech-

izens’ information created through Decree 10.046 in

nologies  reproduce  the  biases  of  social  exclusion,

2019. A detailed analysis produced by Coding Rights

in addition to threatening the rights to dignity, due

with the support of Derechos Digitales15 drew atten-

process,  presumption  of  innocence,  privacy,  and

tion to the database and led to the filing of an action

freedom of expression and association, among oth-

of unconstitutionality against the decree. A decision

ers.  The  use  of  these  technologies  has  also  been

is  still  pending,  but  several  civil  society  organisa-

identified as one of the great challenges to the “affir-

tions are acting as  amici curiae in the case.16

mation of gender and for a broadening of the scope

In  Mexico,  the  Mexican  National  Institute

of  citizenship.”19  Since  the  start  of  the  pandemic,

of  Transparency,  Access  to  Information  and

the use of software to spy on journalists and human

Protection  of  Personal  Data  challenged  in  a  con-

rights activists has resulted in strong criticism and

stitutional  lawsuit  the  amendment  to  the  Federal

complaints in Mexico20 and El Salvador.21

Telecommunications  and  Broadcasting  Law  that

created  the  National  Register  of  Mobile  Telephony

17  INAI. (2021). Demanda de acción de inconstitucionalidad

contra Decreto por el cual se reforman y adicionan diversas

disposiciones de la Ley Federal de Telecomunicaciones y

Radiodifusión. https://home.inai.org.mx/wp-content/documentos/

13  Hayon, A. (2022, 3 February). El Indec quitó el DNI del cuestionario

AccionesYControversias/Demanda_INAI_PANAUT.pdf

definitivo del Censo.  Pagina 12. https://www.pagina12.com.

18  R3D and others. (2022). Amicus curiae en la acción de

ar/399501-el-indec-quito-el-dni-del-cuestionario-definitivo-del-censo

inconstitucionalidad 82/2021 y su acumulada 86/2021. https://r3d.

14  Bioni, B., & Monteiro, R. (2020, 9 June). A landmark ruling in Brazil:

mx/wp-content/uploads/Amicus-PANAUT-08022022.pdf

Paving the way for considering data protection as an autonomous

19  Silva, M. R. (2022). Orbitando telas.  Sur – Revista Internacional de

fundamental right.  Future of Privacy Forum. https://fpf.org/blog/a-

Direitos Humanos, 31. https://sur.conectas.org/orbitando-telas

landmark-ruling-in-brazil-paving-the-way-for-considering-data-

20  ARTICLE 19. (2021, 18 July). Nuevas revelaciones sobre el uso de

protection-as-an-autonomous-fundamental-right

Pegasus en México refrendan la necesidad de garantizar verdad,

15  Anastácio, K., Santos, B., & Varon, J. (2020).  Cadastro Base

justicia y no repetición en el caso Gobierno Espía. https://

do Cidadão: a megabase de dados. Coding Rights. https://

articulo19.org/nuevas-revelaciones-sobre-el-uso-de-pegasus-en-

codingrights.org/docs/megabase.pdf

mexico-refrendan-la-necesidad-de-garantizar-verdad-justicia-y-no-

16  This case was scheduled for trial in February 2022, but at the time

repeticion-en-el-caso-gobierno-espia

of writing, the trial had not started. For more information about the

21  Scott-Railton, J., Marczak, B., Herrero, P. N., Razzak, B. A., Al-Jizawi,

case, see: Secaf, H., Saenger Nuñez, I., & Zanatta, R. (2021, 9 April).

N., Solimano, S., & Deibert, R. (2022, 22 January). Extensive

O Cadastro Base do Cidadão na Mira do Supremo.  JOTA. https://

Hacking of Media & Civil Society in El Salvador with Pegasus

www.jota.info/opiniao-e-analise/colunas/agenda-da-privacidade-

Spyware.  The Citizen Lab. https://citizenlab.ca/2022/01/project-

e-da-protecao-de-dados/o-cadastro-base-do-cidadao-na-mira-do-

torogoz-extensive-hacking-media-civil-society-el-salvador-pegasus-

supremo-09042021

spyware

LATIN AMERICA / 147

Civil society organisations adopted several strat-

to  set  basic  principles  for  the  use  of  the  technolo-

egies  to  deal  with  the  various  problems  related  to

gy. However, some of the first initiatives to develop

facial  recognition  and  other  surveillance  technolo-

legislation on AI, such as a new bill in Brazil,30 have

gies that increased during the pandemic. First, they

been severely criticised by civil society. They argue

have studied the use of these technologies by Lat-

that  it  is  important  to  take  advantage  of  instances

in  American  states  and  called  for  strict  democratic

that allow for public participation and input, on the

controls,  which  include  the  criteria  of  legality,  ne-

one hand to improve public consultation processes

cessity and proportionality, and public supervision,

and, on the other hand, to influence public policies

at  regional22  and  local23  levels.  In  addition,  various

that  bring  countries  closer  to  a  use  of  AI  that  re-

types  of  legal  challenges  have  taken  place  in  dif-

spects human rights.

ferent  countries,  with  examples  of  this  being  the

strategic  litigation  seen  in  Brazil24  and  Argentina.25

Exposing inequalities in access to the internet

Civil  society  also  worked  with  parliamentarians  to

In Brazil, studies produced by the Brazilian Institute

propose  bills  that  would  prohibit  the  use  of  mass

of Consumer Defence (Idec) and Instituto Locomoti-

surveillance  technology.26  Another  strategy  was  to

va show that the current reliance on mobile internet

urge  the  Inter-American  Human  Rights  System  to

access  by  the  majority  of  people  is  precarious  and

act, denouncing the use of surveillance technologies

restricts basic rights by limiting access to education,

and  their  impact  on  freedom  of  expression  during

health, financial and social assistance programmes

the pandemic at a hearing27 and asking for the sys-

such as emergency aid during the pandemic. This led

tem  to  react  to  the  use  of  spyware.28  International

to  dissatisfaction  among  people  and  exacerbated

civil society organisations also spoke out against the

existing vulnerabilities.31

use  of  software  to  spy  on  human  rights  defenders

Also  in  Brazil,  two  cases  demonstrate  the  vul-

and journalists.29

nerability  and  inequality  in  internet  access  during

In recent years, several Latin American countries

the pandemic. First, the president vetoed a law that

have  developed  national  AI  strategies  in  an  effort

attempted to guarantee access to online education

during  lockdowns.  After  great  pressure  from  civil

22  Venturini, J., & Garay, V. (2021).  Reconocimiento facial en América

society,  the  National  Congress  overrode  the  presi-

Latina: tendencias en la implementación de una tecnología

dential  veto  to  implement  public  policies  and  give

perversa. Al Sur. https://www.alsur.lat/sites/default/files/2021-11/

ALSUR_Reconocimiento_facial_en_Latam_ES.pdf

students  access  to  the  internet.32  In  the  second

23  Almeida, M. F., Romero, S., & Thiel, D. (2021).  La videovigilancia

case,  the  president  vetoed  the  creation  of  internet

en Ecuador vulnera derechos ciudadanos. Fundamedios. ttps://

hotspots in Indigenous communities. However, this

www.fundamedios.org.ec/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Inf.-

Videovigilancia_01-1.pdf

veto was reversed by the National Congress, and the

24  de Souza, M., & Zanatta, R. (2021). The Problem of Automated Facial

law was enacted in August of the same year – again,

Recognition Technologies in Brazil: Social Countermovements and

after enormous pressure from civil society.33

the New Frontiers of Fundamental Rights.  Latin American Human

Rights Studies, 1. https://revistas.ufg.br/lahrs/article/view/69423

25  de Souza, M. (2021, 15 October). No bombardeen Buenos

30  Coalizão Direitos na Rede. (2021, 7 December). Brasil não está

Aires: reconocimiento facial en CABA hoy.  Derechos

pronto para regular inteligência artificial. https://direitosnarede.

Digitales. https://www.derechosdigitales.org/16851/

org.br/2021/12/07/brasil-nao-esta-pronto-para-regular-

no-bombardeen-buenos-aires-reconocimiento-facial-en-caba-hoy

inteligencia-artificial

26  Aquino, M. (2021, 19 November). Projeto que bane reconhecimento

31  Idec & Instituto Locomotiva. (2021).  Barreiras e limitações no

facial expõe problemas da tecnologia.  Metrópoles.  https://www.

acesso à internet e hábitos de uso e navegação na rede das

metropoles.com/brasil/ciencia-e-tecnologia-br/projeto-que-bane-

classes C, D e E. https://idec.org.br/sites/default/files/pesquisa_

reconhecimento-facial-expoe-problemas-da-tecnologia

locomotiva_relatorio.pdf

27  R3D. (2021, 27 October). El Estado mexicano debe esclarecer el

32  The Brazilian Congress passed a law with the purpose of

uso de pegasus y garantizar su no repetición, piden organizaciones

guaranteeing access to the internet for educational purposes for

ante la CIDH. https://r3d.mx/2021/10/27/el-estado-mexicano-

students and teachers of public basic education. It provided for

debe-esclarecer-el-uso-de-pegasus-y-garantizar-su-no-repeticion-

the allocation of resources (around USD 650,000) from the Fund

piden-organizaciones-ante-la-cidh; Derechos Digitales. (2021, 27

for the Universalisation of Telecommunications Services (FUST) to

October). Derechos Digitales expresa preocupación ante la CIDH

be used in the contracting of mobile data packages and purchase

por aumento del uso de reconocimiento facial en la región. https://

of equipment for students and teachers in public schools across

www.derechosdigitales.org/16932/derechos-digitales-participa-de-

the Brazilian states, the Federal District and municipalities that

la-en-la-cidh-en-la-sesion-uso-de-tecnologias-de-vigilancia-y-su-

have adopted remote or hybrid learning. Coalizão Direitos na Rede.

impacto-en-la-libertad-de-expresion-en-pandemia

(2021, 14 April). Não há educação sem conexão: Nota da Coalizão

28  APC et al. (2022, 19 January). Exposed: Civil society condemns

Direitos na Rede pela derrubada imediata do veto presidencial

use of Pegasus in El Salvador to spy on journalists and activists.

ao PL 3477/20. https://direitosnarede.org.br/2021/04/14/

https://www.apc.org/en/pubs/exposed-civil-society-condemns-

nao-ha-educacao-sem-conexao

use-pegasus-el-salvador-spy-journalists-and-activists

33  For instance, Law No. 14021/2020 set up social protection measures

29  OEA. (2022, 31 January). La CIDH, RELE y OACNUDH expresan

to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in Indigenous territories. Oliveira,

preocupación ante los hallazgos sobre uso del software Pegasus

J. (2020, 19 August). Congresso derruba vetos de Bolsonaro e obriga

para espiar a periodistas y organizaciones de la sociedad civil en El

Governo a garantir UTIs a indígenas na pandemia.  El País.  https://brasil.

Salvador. https://www.oas.org/pt/CIDH/jsForm/?File=/es/cidh/

elpais.com/brasil/2020-08-20/congresso-derruba-vetos-de-bolsonaro-

prensa/comunicados/2022/022.asp

e-obriga-governo-a-garantir-utis-a-indigenas-na-pandemia.html

148  /  Global Information Society Watch

Other  countries  faced  similar  challenges.  Ecua-

evolve and their use becomes more common, it also

dor, for instance, tried to close several public centres

becomes  necessary  for  civil  society  to  further  de-

for  internet  access  that  are  key  for  connectivity

velop  an  agenda  that  takes  into  consideration  the

in  rural  areas  –  the  so-called  “infocentros”.34  The

various impacts such technologies have on society,

measure  would  have  affected  the  internet  access

including an increase in inequalities for particularly

of  four  million  people,35  but  the  decision  was  sus-

vulnerable groups that risk being left behind.

pended after pressure from popular movements and

The  technological  measures  implemented  by

other institutions.36

states as part of their health strategies to mitigate

In  Colombia,  the  problem  of  inequalities  in

the  effects  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic  proved  to

access to the internet is due to the lack of infrastruc-

represent risks not only to privacy and information-

ture in different geographic regions, as well as the

al self-determination, but also to a vast number of

high cost of data in relation to the minimum wage.37

economic  and  social  rights.  As  the  threat  from  the

The country nevertheless made a positive change to

pandemic changed with the introduction of vaccina-

overcome  this  situation  by  enacting  a  law  that  de-

tion and restrictions were relaxed, we can reflect and

clared the internet an essential and universal public

learn from the diverse experiences in different coun-

service.38 In Argentina, through the Decree of Neces-

tries over the past two years. But doing this we can

sity and Urgency No. 690/2020, ICTs and access to

prepare a renewed advocacy agenda that pays clos-

telecommunications networks were also considered

er attention to those technologies that were either

essential and strategic public services. However, the

already being implemented before the pandemic or

measure  was  later  suspended  by  the  judiciary,39  a

were  implemented  because  of  it.  It  is  particularly

move which was criticised by civil society.40

concerning  that  the  health  emergency  served  as  a

justification  for  the  digitisation  and  datafication  of

Conclusion

information and services in several areas, as well as

Throughout  this  report,  we  have  briefly  identified

for the acquisition of surveillance technologies that

the trends in the use of technology in the context of

are increasingly used for other purposes. On the oth-

the COVID-19 pandemic – especially measures taken

er hand, it seems to be extremely relevant for civil

by governments – as well as the strategies adopted

society to refocus on the issue of inequalities in in-

by civil society organisations in the face of the dif-

ternet access in communities where the digital gap

ferent threats to the enjoyment of human rights that

is prominent.

resulted from their implementation. As technologies

This new scenario makes it necessary to rethink

strategies  to  ensure  respect  for  human  rights,  par-

ticularly  in  the  digital  sphere.  In  this  regard,  we

highlighted  the  findings  of  evidence-based  region-

34  https://infocentros.mintel.gob.ec/estadisticas-infocentros

al research and strategic litigation seen in different

35  Dávalos, N. (2020, 20 July). “Más de 4 millones de

countries. Due to the increase in techno-authoritar-

personas serán afectadas por cierre de infocentros”.

Primicias.  https://www.primicias.ec/noticias/tecnologia/

ianism  in  several  states,  research  and  developing

millones-personas-seran-afectadas-cierre-infocentros

recommendations  for  improvements  and  writing

36  Defensoría del Pueblo de Ecuador. (2020, 24 July). La defensoría

joint statements are very useful tools for civil soci-

del pueblo presenta acción de protección en contra del cierre de

Infocentros en el país. https://www.dpe.gob.ec/la-defensoria-del-

ety  and  can  be  complemented  by  other  strategies.

pueblo-presenta-accion-de-proteccion-en-contra-del-cierre-de-

For example, these include filling  habeas  data and

infocentros-en-el-pais

collective  amparo 41 processes in constitutional mat-

37  Saavedra, V., Ospina, D., Upegui, J. C., & Torres, D. (2021).

Desigualdades digitales. Aproximación sociojurídica al acceso a

ters, actively participating in the discussions at the

Internet en Colombia. Editorial Dejusticia. https://www.dejusticia.

Inter-American  Human  Rights  System  and  present-

org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Docs71-DesigDigital-Web-

Sep23.pdf

ing  amicus curiae briefs. All of this should be done

38  This legislation guarantees internet service in an “efficient,

through the collaboration of human rights organisa-

continuous and permanent way,” making it available to everyone

tions flourishing in Latin America.

and in emergency situations. Ley No. 2108, 29 July 2021. Ley de

internet como servicio público esencial y universal. https://dapre.

presidencia.gov.co/normativa/normativa/LEY%202108%20DEL%20

29%20DE%20JULIO%20DE%202021.pdf

39  Nuevo Diario. (2021, 21 December). Fue suspendido el DNU que

declaró esenciales a las telecomunicaciones. https://www.

nuevodiariodesalta.com.ar/noticias/judiciales-6/fue-suspendido-

el-dnu-que-declaro-esenciales-a-las-telecomunicaciones-61648

41  “‘Amparo’ is a proceeding for the protection of fundamental rights

40  Bizberge, A. (2020, 26 August). Declaran servicio público en

in case of violations and it is a Latin American contribution to

competencia a la telefonía móvil, acceso a Internet y TV paga en

constitutional procedural law.” Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de

Argentina.  OBSERVACOM. https://www.observacom.org/declaran-

amparo en América Latina.  Anuario de derecho constitucional

servicio-publico-en-competencia-a-la-telefonia-movil-acceso-a-

latinoamericano, Año XVII, 207-226. https://www.corteidh.or.cr/

internet-y-tv-paga-en-argentina

tablas/r27649.pdf

LATIN AMERICA / 149

Action steps

•  Working  with  other  organisations,  lodge  com-

Considering what was discussed in this report, the

plaints  against  infringements  of  human  rights

following  are  our  recommendations  to  improve  ad-

at the relevant institutions, in the shortest time

vocacy  on  issues  related  to  the  use  of  technology,

possible.

from a human rights perspective:

•  Form and strengthen coalitions for strategic liti-

•  Continue  to  report  and  document  cases  where

gation on digital rights.

the  use  of  technologies  potentially  poses  risks

•  Actively participate in the sessions and cases of

to human rights.

the  Inter-American  Human  Rights  System  and

•  Strengthen collaboration between organisations

when possible, participate as  amicus curiae.

in research and advocacy against inequalities in

•  Increase participation in national legislative pro-

internet access, especially in areas and popula-

cesses  through  creating  collective  submissions

tion groups with higher levels of vulnerability.

from civil society.

150  /  Global Information Society Watch

LATIN AMERICA

GETTING READY FOR THE NEXT PANDEMIC: PUBLIC INTEREST TECHNOLOGIES

IN LATIN AMERICA

that  functionalities  were  limited,  few  companies

Tecnológico de Monterrey, Berkman Klein Center for

Internet & Society and Tierra Común; and May First

provided  cloud  infrastructure  and  services,  and

Movement Technology and The Tor Project

data collection was disproportionate. Additionally,

Paola Ricaurte and Jacobo Nájera

the  agreements  between  governments  and  com-

https://www.tierracomun.net

panies, including the terms and conditions of the

deployment,  lacked  transparency,  accountability

and public participation.

Introduction

At  the  onset  of  the  pandemic,  at  a  time  of  great

Coronapps in Latin America

uncertainty,  governments  around  the  world  quick-

During  the  early  months  of  the  pandemic,  Latin

ly  deployed  technological  solutions  to  prevent

American governments deployed a techno-solution-

contagion. However, in the case of Latin America, the

ist  approach  to  prevent  contagion.  However,  there

technological  response  of  governments  to  face  the

are many unanswered questions about the effective-

health crisis was spur of the moment. The pandemic

ness of the applications in achieving their intended

highlighted the lack of adequate digital policies, pre-

goal, even two years later.

paredness  and  infrastructure,  and  the  widespread

The  questions  that  guided  our  research  are:

tendency  to  adopt  opaque  private  solutions  to  ad-

What  functionalities  do  these  applications  offer?

dress  the  emergency,  with  no   ex-ante  analysis  and

What are the software and infrastructure used? And

without proper safeguards.

what are the privacy and personal data management

In this context, drawing on an empirical and com-

policies? We identify the characteristics and patterns

parative analysis of a sample of coronavirus-related

in the design and deployment of coronapps as public

mobile applications, or “coronapps”, in Latin Amer-

interest technologies.

ica,  this  study  focuses  on  various  dimensions  that

Our  comparative  analysis  includes  a  sample  of

Latin  American  governments should consider when

nine official applications2 deployed by Latin American

developing  public  interest  technologies1  in  times

governments at the national level.3 The applications

of  crisis:  1)  context  of  application,  2)  public  policy

considered for this research were Alerta Guate (Gua-

and  tech  governance,  3)  cost-benefit  analysis,  4)

temala), Bolivia Segura, CoronApp (Chile), CoronApp

public-private partnerships, 5) privacy and data col-

(Colombia),  Coronavírus  SUS  (Brazil),  Coronavirus

lection,  6)  transparency  and  accountability,  and  7)

UY  (Uruguay),  COVID-19MX  (Mexico) ,   Perú  En  Tus

public participation.

Manos,  and  Salud  EC  (Ecuador).  Table  1  presents

To  build  our  argument,  this  report  presents

the apps analysed, the number of downloads, user

the  results  of  the  analysis  of  the  functionalities,

reviews  in  the  stores  (App  Store  and  Google  Play),

cloud  service  providers,  privacy  and  data  col-

the total population of the country, and the numbers

lection  of  nine  coronapps  developed  by  Latin

of infections and deaths reported at the time of the

American  governments.  Our  main  findings  show

study.

1  We approach “public interest technology” as involving a set of

2  The sample was purposely determined based on the availability of

heterogeneous practices that raise questions about the benefits

the application in “app stores” from the place of connection and

and harms of digital technology. In this case we are critically

the possibility of accessing the functionalities without requiring

approaching the development of apps for public health and its

personal data we could not provide.

relationship with other human rights such as privacy. From this

3  These apps coexist with other similar ones at the local level and

framework, we embrace the principle of exposing and discussing

even with alternatives developed by NGOs or private actors.

the values with which technologies and their designs are aligned,

However, we consider that in the case of a health crisis, national

as well as the measures taken to reduce risks and harms. See:

governments are the ones that frame public policy, even though

Costanza-Chock, S., Wagoner, M., Taye, B., Rivas, C., Schweidler,

local governments have the capacity to make decisions that

C., Bullen, G., & the T4SJ Project. (2018).  #MoreThanCode:

sometimes reflect divergences with respect to the national context.

Practitioners reimagine the landscape of technology for justice

This divergence is also an issue that needs to be addressed when

and equity.  Research Action Design & Open Technology Institute.

developing a public digital policy to guide the development of

https://morethancode.cc

public interest technologies.

LATIN AMERICA / 151

TABLE 1.

Coronapps analysed for the study (June 2020)

COUNTRY

APP

DOWNLOADS APP RATING (APP STORE  POPULATION

NUMBER OF  DEATHS

AND GOOGLE PLAY)

INFECTIONS

Brazil

Coronavírus

5,000,000+

3.0/51 – 3,100 reviews  212,537,568

1,233,147

55,054

SUS

3.6/5 – 20,537 reviews

Bolivia

Bolivia Segura

50,000+

3.3/5 – 54 reviews

11,670,183

28,503

913

3.5/5 – 576 reviews

Chile

CoronApp

100,000+

2.4/5 – 418 reviews

19,113,705

259,064

4,903

(Chile)

Colombia

CoronApp

10,000,000+ 2.5/5 – 45 reviews,

50,874,063

80,599

2,654

-Colombia

3.8/5 – 67,515 reviews

Ecuador

Salud EC

100,000+

2.7/5 – 29 reviews

17,638,063

53,156

4,343

2.7/5 – 1,065 reviews

Guatemala Alerta Guate

Not

Not available

17,908,815

15,619

623

available

Mexico

COVID-19MX

500,000+

4.2/5 – 567 reviews

128,910,809

202,951

25,060

3.6/5 – 3,321 reviews

Peru

Perú En Tus

1,000,000+

2.9/5 – 8,503 reviews

32,963,598

268,602

8,761

Manos

Uruguay

Coronavirus UY

500,000+

4.1/5 – 36 reviews

3,473,578

907

26

3.9/5 – 4,087 reviews

Comparative analysis: Functionalities,

following  categories:  content  distribution  networks,

cloud infrastructure and privacy

telemetry, cloud computing, mapping services and ma-

To  answer  our  research  questions  we  analysed  app

chine learning. Additionally, the apps in several cases

functionalities, cloud infrastructure and services, pri-

access underlying technology pre-installed on mobile

vacy, and data collection.

phones for both Android and iOS operating systems.5

However, as Figures 1 and 2 show, while a variety

App functionalities

of  intermediaries  are  used,  offering  specialised  ser-

vices,  many  applications  then  drift  to  two  or  three

For  the  analysis  of  the  functionalities,  the  specifici-

common-end infrastructures. This pattern raises sev-

ties of each application were captured from the user

eral economic, political, technical and legal issues.

interface. In the functionality matrix we can see that

the  services  offered  by  the  application  are  actually

Privacy and data collection

limited: most of them offer self-diagnosis, figures and

graphs on the disease, a hotline, maps (of health cen-

These are the criteria for data collection and privacy

tres or of the distribution of infection in the territory),

rights considered in the analysis: privacy policies and

general information about the virus and disease, and

terms  of  use;  entity  responsible  for  data  collection;

frequently asked questions. In return, as mentioned,

the purpose of the application; limitation of the pur-

most of these applications require the sharing of loca-

poses of the processing; limitation of data retention;

tion and personal data (see Table 2).

Cloud infrastructure and services

5  The methodology that allows us to identify intermediaries is subject

to margins of error linked to two main phenomena. The first is

In the total set of network traffic analysis for the nine

related to the characteristics of the deployment architecture of the

services on which the applications depend, which in some cases does

apps, we documented that they rely on a wide varie-

not allow us to visualise all the actors. The second is the growing

ty of intermediaries, which can be organised into the

tendency of large companies to deploy infrastructure outside their

networks to address issues such as capacity, latency and congestion,

as shown by recent research: Gigis, P. (2021, 20 December). Seven

years in the life of Hypergiants’ off-nets.  APNIC. https://blog.apnic.

4  Number indicates how users rate the apps.

net/2021/12/20/seven-years-in-the-life-of-hypergiants-off-nets

152  /  Global Information Society Watch

TABLE 2.

FIGURE 1.

The service providers used by different apps

LATIN AMERICA / 153

FIGURE 1  (cont.)

The service providers used by different apps

154  /  Global Information Society Watch

FIGURE 2

Many apps end up using the infrastructure of only a few providers

LATIN AMERICA / 155

data  anonymisation;  limitation  of  responsibility;

inequalities  and  challenges  faced  by  countries  in  the

limitation of access; data security; data transfer; ac-

global South in times of crisis. These inequalities were

cessibility of the policy; confidentiality; and consent.

particularly  acute  concerning  access  to  vaccines,  and

The  privacy  policies  of  the  applications  show

access to accurate information and health services, but

variations  in  treatment  of  personal  data  by  national

digital inequalities also meant that governments were

governments.  In  most  cases  there  is  no  specificity

ill prepared to deal with the crisis. In this context, the

regarding privacy and data collection. The lack of spec-

decision to spend resources on the development and

ificity  in  the  privacy  policy  documents  and  terms  of

deployment  of  technologies  is  particularly  relevant.

use is a difficult labyrinth for users to follow since it

Moreover, when half of the population does not have

implies  referring  to  the  laws  on  personal  data  pro-

access to the internet, the benefit that these apps offer

tection in force in the various countries, which were

to disconnected communities is questionable.

scattered across several documents.

Following the results of this analysis, we propose

Public policy and tech governance

a framework for evaluating the development, deploy-

It is important to specify the governance of the public

ment and use of public interest technologies in times

interest technology within the framework of a broad-

of crisis. This proposal is based on lessons learned in

er  public  tech  policy.  Governance  is  associated  with

Latin America from the deployment of apps during the

the  process  of  public  accountability  regarding  the

pandemic.

development,  deployment  and  use  of  public  interest

technologies. Tech governance is important, especially

Public interest technologies: An analytical

in the technologies aimed at providing real-time infor-

framework for their deployment

mation  to  guide  the  public  decision-making  process

This report argues that the analysis and evaluation of

using  sensitive  data  from  the  population.  Moreover,

public interest technologies in Latin America must go

tech governance is directly related to guaranteeing the

beyond the issue of privacy. The development and de-

right to privacy, tech sovereignty and cybersecurity. In

ployment of public interest technologies must adhere

our study, there were cases where the responsible par-

to ethical principles6 within a technical, legal, social

ty for the development and deployment was a private

and political vision oriented towards the public good,

company, while in other cases it was the public health

and which needs to be reflected in the complete tech-

institutions,  or  the  federal  government.  In  countries

nology life cycle. We propose various dimensions to

where there is not enough public infrastructure to meet

be taken into account for developing public interest

the required social demands, the relationship between

technologies, especially in times of crisis.

the state and private companies – especially if they are

foreign providers – must be audited under legal, eco-

The context of development, deployment

nomic, technical and political principles. Investment in

and use

technological infrastructure must be covered by a legal

The analysis of the context is the starting point. The

framework, but it must also be auditable throughout

context  of  tech  development,  deployment  and  use

the life cycle of its use in terms of security, infrastruc-

comprises  the  infrastructural,  political,  educational,

ture  integrity  and  intermediary  liability.  Mechanisms

cultural,  digital  and,  when  it  comes  to  the  pandem-

must  be  established  to  evaluate  its  technical  effec-

ic,  the  public  health  conditions  that  can  determine

tiveness in contrast to the economic costs associated

the  success  or  failure  of  the  technology.  During  the

with its maintenance and long-term sustainability. Fi-

pandemic, the need for a contextual analysis was ev-

nally,  it  should  be  evaluated  whether  the  use  of  this

ident in countries like Brazil, where an authoritarian

technology does not end up limiting governments’ own

government  with  questionable  management  of  the

capacities  to  develop  their  own  public  technologies,

health crisis was developing the app. Another exam-

thus increasing technological dependency and under-

ple was the case of Ecuador, where the government

mining sovereignty.

took  punitive  measures  against  the  population  who

did not respect the strict confinement measures and

Cost-benefit analysis

curfews and where the app was used for policing.

Any  public  interest  technology  needs  an   ex-ante

The context analysis should also consider the social,

analysis  of  the  cost  and  benefits  of  deploying  such

cultural and infrastructural conditions. The pandemic in

technology.  The  first  question  is:  Is  this  technology

Latin  America  made  even  more  evident  the  profound

worth it? In other words, will the app really contribute to

addressing the problem that it is intended to address?

6  Gasser, U., Ienca, M., Scheibner, J., Sleigh, J., & Vayena, E. (2020).

Further questions such as the following also need to

Digital tools against COVID-19: taxonomy, ethical challenges,

be asked: Will the benefits outweigh the costs? What

and navigation aid.  The Lancet Digital Health, 2(8). https://doi.

will be the costs and for whom? Are there indicators

org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30137-0

156  /  Global Information Society Watch

to evaluate the costs (social, economic, political) be-

The heterogeneity of structure and approach hinders

fore the technology is deployed and used? Are there

readability,7  and  does  not  provide  the  necessary  in-

strategies to analyse and evaluate the results after its

formation and sufficient guarantees for users to have

deployment? An  ex-ante analysis is crucial for defining

certainty and autonomy over their data.

the  need  for  deploying  the  technology,  developing  a

A question posed by the organisation Access Now

cost-benefit  analysis,  identifying  the  best  providers

is: What rules should be respected when the excep-and type of technology, and the likely outcomes.

tional  becomes  the  norm?8  However,  for  the  Latin

American scenario, the question should be reframed

Public-private partnerships

as  the  following:  What  rules  should  be  respected

The analysis of public-private partnerships in contexts

when  the  exception  becomes  the  norm   in  contexts

where corruption and impunity reign is crucial. In Lat-

where impunity, corruption, lack of transparency and

in America, private companies developed most of the

accountability are the norm?

applications.  This  phenomenon  is  a  consequence  of

Governments must guarantee, in contractual and

the  lack  of  investment  in  public  infrastructure  and

legal  agreements  with  intermediaries,  compliance

technological  capacity  of  Latin  American  countries

with  privacy  policies,  but  also  the  technical  condi-

that makes it difficult to quickly react to an emergen-

tions  and  robust  cybersecurity  controls  needed  to

cy. The clear urgency of the situation in the case of the

safeguard them. Simultaneously, governments must

pandemic  was  the  perfect  scenario  for  companies  to

be  subject  to  transparency  and  accountability  laws

sell their products or offer them “for free” as part of a

that  guarantee  responsible  data  management.  In

marketing strategy. There was great opacity about the

other  words,  for  developing  public  interest  technol-

agreements made by the governments with the compa-

ogies,  it  is  necessary  to  contemplate  the  economic,

nies, the money spent, or the terms of the relationship.

political,  technical  and  legal  dimensions  that  allow

Neither  was  there  transparency  regarding  how  these

for a common technical control plan around all these

companies  were  going  to  guarantee  the  integrity  of

services in terms of security, as well as development

data and the place where data would be stored.

and privacy.

From  the  analysis,  some  conclusions  can  be

drawn. First, the fact that applications are deployed

Transparency and accountability

on  the  infrastructures  of  dominant  tech  companies

Transparency and accountability should apply to the

results in governments favouring the economic con-

full  life  cycle  of  public  interest  technologies.  Firstly,

centration  of  certain  dominant  players.  Secondly,  in

with respect to the contractual and legal process of

political  terms,  it  turns  governments  into  clients  of

a  public-private  partnership,  this  involves  the  terms

tech companies on which they depend for their overall

and conditions of the agreements, and the auditabil-

operation, thus taking away their autonomy. Thirdly,

ity of the process. Secondly, they should apply to the

in technical, security and privacy terms, the multiplic-

technical  conditions  for  data  management  and  data

ity  of  services  means  that  more  actors  are  involved

integrity. Lastly, governments should report whether

in the different layers of data management. In other

the  technology  was  useful  or  the  strategy  effective

words,  there  are  more  possibilities  of  vulnerability

to prevent contagion or if the technology offered any

associated with each intermediary’s own policies and

benefit for the population. In this regard, an  ex-post

data  security  practices.  Simultaneously,  when  the

analysis  should  be  integrated  as  part  of  the  de-

providers  are  large  tech  corporations,  for  certain

ployment  of  the  technology. The  assessment  report

social actors they represent greater security in data

should include a financial report and a public benefit

management when faced with authoritarian govern-

report (including indicators for strategy performance,

ments or governments that are not characterised by

technology efficiency, and public satisfaction).

responsible data management.

In  Latin  America,  governments  did  not  issue

public  reports  on  the  findings  or  results  of  imple-

Privacy and data collection

mentation. They did not provide reports on the data

The  pandemic  raised  questions  regarding  human

collected, or make any public mention of the overall

rights in exceptional situations. The issue of privacy

strategy  and  evaluation  of  the  processes,  their  im-

during the crisis was framed as a trade-off between

pact, errors or omissions.

the public interest and personal rights. However, this

analysis  shows  that  the  amount  of  collected  data

7  It also makes it more complicated to trace back who is responsible

was  not  proportional  to  the  alleged  public  benefit.

in the case of a privacy violation.

The  privacy  policies  and  terms  of  use  applicable  to

8  Massé, E. (2020).  Recommendations on privacy and data protection

the services offered by the applications were insuffi-

in the fight against COVID-19.  Access Now. https://www.accessnow.

org/cms/assets/uploads/2020/03/Access-Now-recommendations-

cient, inaccessible or incomprehensible to the public.

on-Covid-and-data-protection-and-privacy.pdf

LATIN AMERICA / 157

Public participation

Action steps

During the deployment of technologies of public in-

The  following  points  need  to  be  kept  in  mind  when

terest, it must be ensured that they fulfil the purposes

governments  propose  the  use  of  technologies  for

for which they were designed. To this end, it is nec-

monitoring public health or other crises:

essary  to  systematically  monitor  and  evaluate  their

•  Context  matters:  Understand  the  context  of  de-

implementation  through  indicators  and  the  publica-

ployment and use of the technology.

tion  of  regular  technical-scientific  reports  to  ensure

accountability to the public, which in turn can partic-

•  Avoid techno-solutionism: Assess the purpose of

ipate  in  the  evaluation  of  their  performance.  Public

developing public interest technologies.

participation is key in the full life cycle of public inter-

•  Technology governance as part of a broader tech

est technologies.

policy:  Who  will  be  responsible  for  the  imple-

mentation and the decision-making process? The

Conclusion

federal  government  or  a  public  ministry?  Why?

In the context of the pandemic caused by the SARS-

Who will develop the technology and who will de-

CoV-2  coronavirus,  mobile  apps  were  developed

cide what technology is needed?

and  adopted  by  Latin  American  governments. These

•  Long-term vision: The technology’s design and ar-

applications  have  varied  characteristics  in  terms  of

chitecture should take into account its whole life

functionalities,  cloud  infrastructure,  privacy  policies

cycle.  Consider  the  cost  of  its  creation,  deploy-

and  data  management.  We  observed  how  the  ap-

ment,  operation  and  maintenance  in  proportion

plications  reflected  the  public  health  policies  of  the

to the amount of human work necessary and the

various Latin American governments and their visions

long-term  costs  (financial,  political,  costs  to  hu-

with  respect  to  the  ideal  mechanisms  to  alleviate

man  rights,  etc.)  of  the  technical  ecosystem  on

the pandemic. This included the technical policy par-

which this technology is dependent.

adigm to which they adhere, and the decisions they

•  Housekeeping first: Establish legal and technical

made  in  terms  of  development,  choice  of  infrastruc-

agreements  and  transparency  and  accountabil-

ture providers, context of deployment, functionalities,

ity  mechanisms  in  the  relationship  with  private

and privacy. The analysis of functionalities, cloud in-

actors.

frastructure and privacy policies makes it possible to

visualise the dimensions associated with the design,

•  Human rights at the centre: Ensure the right to pri-

development and use of applications, their opportu-

vacy in exceptional circumstances and especially

nities and risks. In Latin America, we observe a trend

in cases where sensitive data is collected.

associated with a lack of critical understanding of tech-

•  Design justice: Define design and implementation

nology as a matter of public interest. In consequence,

principles as part of a digital policy that takes jus-

the  development  and  deployment  of  technology

tice and reparation seriously.

reflect  poor  adherence  to  principles  such  as  partic-

•  Systematic  monitoring:  Conduct  systematic

ipation,  transparency,  and  the  right  for  the  public  to

monitoring,  establish  indicators  and  publish

access information, including indicators about its per-

technical-scientific reports to evaluate the effec-

formance,  liability  and  reparation.  As  we  argue,  the

tiveness of the technology and the policy asso-

analysis and evaluation of public interest technologies

ciated with it.

must go beyond the issue of privacy, which has been a

•  Infrastructure  is  your  backbone:  Guarantee  the

central focus of civil society advocacy and academia.9

availability and technical integrity of data.

What do we need to do to get ready for the next

pandemic?  Understand  that  the  technology  we

•  Don’t give away your sovereignty: Think carefully

choose reflects a vision of society and, as such, antic-

about data collection, management and storage.

ipates our responses to the crisis. For the next crisis

If you are collecting sensitive data from your pop-

we need to work harder on developing adequate pub-

ulation,  make  sure  to  have  a  responsible  data

lic policies, investment in public infrastructure, strong

framework in place.

regulation, transparency and accountability, and pub-

•  Participation  is  key:  Include  public  participation

lic involvement.

in every stage of the process.

•  Evaluate  the  results:  Does  the  technology  serve

the  purpose  for  which  it  was  developed  and

9  Alshawi, A., Al-Razgan, M., AlKallas, F. H., Bin Suhaim, R. A., Al-

deployed?

Tamimi, R., Alharbi, N., & AlSaif, S. O. (2022). Data privacy during

pandemics: a systematic literature review of COVID-19 smartphone

applications.  PeerJ Computer Science, 8:e826. https://doi.

org/10.7717/peerj-cs.826

158  /  Global Information Society Watch

MALAWI

FIGHTING ONLINE MISINFORMATION AND DISINFORMATION IN MALAWI AMIDST

THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC: A MULTISTAKEHOLDER COLLABORATIVE APPROACH

and digital platform companies to tackle them have

University of Livingstonia, Malawi, and Kwame Nkrumah

University of Science and Technology, Ghana

been  besieged  by  multiple  challenges  and  policy

Donald Flywell Malanga and Eunice Adu Boahen

shortcomings, with the lack of coordination and co-

www.unilia.ac.mw; donaldflywel@gmail.com; www.knust.

operation  among  key  stakeholders  being  a  major

edu.gh; boatengeunice@ymail.com

concern. These challenges were further exacerbated

by the global COVID-19 pandemic.5

Introduction

Malawi,  being  part  of  the  global  communi-

ty,  is  not  spared  from  online  misinformation  and

The rapid advancement in information and commu-

disinformation.  Undocumented  reports  indicate

nications  technologies  (ICTs)  in  recent  years  has

that  while  internet  and  ICT  access  is  increasing,

revolutionised  the  way  we  live  and  connect  with

online misinformation and disinformation are also

each other. This digital revolution has brought un-

on  the  rise  at  unprecedented  levels,6  particular-

precedented  and  transformational  economic  and

ly  during  the  COVID-19  pandemic  period.  As  has

social  benefits.1  However,  the  rewards  of  this  dig-

been  argued,  tackling  online  misinformation  and

ital  transformation  are  also  being  overshadowed

disinformation requires a multistakeholder effort

by the global spread of online misinformation and

due to the complexity and multi-layered problems

disinformation,  also  known  as  an  “infodemic”.2

associated  with  them.7  To  this  end,  this  report,

Digital  rights  such  as  freedom  of  expression,  ac-

which shares the findings of interviews with 13 re-

cess  to  information  online  and  online  safety  are

spondents from across different sectors in Malawi,

all under threat by the rapid dissemination of false

adopts  a  multistakeholder  approach  to  generate

and malicious online information within and across

evidence on efforts in combating online misinfor-

national  borders.3  Prior  studies  have  shown  that

mation  and  disinformation  in  the  country  amidst

online misinformation and disinformation are com-

the COVID-19 pandemic.

plex  problems  that  do  not  suit  a  one-size-fits-all

solution. To this end, effective mitigation can only

Study context

be achieved through long-term strategies involving

Malawi gained its independence from Great Britain

multistakeholder  collaboration  and  cooperation

in  1964.  It  borders  Tanzania,  Zambia  and  Mozam-

between governments, digital platforms, civil soci-

bique. The country has an estimated population of

ety and other actors.

17.7 million people, of which 85% live in rural areas.8

In  Africa,  online  misinformation  and  disin-

The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is USD

formation  have  grown  recently,  both  in  form  and

636.8.9 Most women work in the agricultural sector,

prevalence.  However,  the  challenges  of  combat-

which is a backbone of Malawi’s economy. Of those

ing  them  are  equally  burgeoning,  and  measures

in  non-agricultural  waged  employment,  21%  are

to  curb  them  remain  inadequate  and  often  inap-

women and 79% are men, and the numbers have re-

propriate.4  Attempts  by  some  African  governments

mained the same over the years.

Despite  Malawi  having  the  lowest  ICT  pene-

tration  rate  in  the  Southern  African  Development

1  Okeleke, K., & Robinson, J. (2021).  Exploring online misinformation

and disinformation in Asia Pacific. GSMA. https://www.gsma.

com/asia-pacific/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/190721-Exploring-

misinformation-in-Asia-Pacific-1.pdf

2  Paine, J. (2021, 25 June). The future of Asia’s battle against online

5  Ibid.

misinformation.  The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2021/06/

6  Kainja, J. (2020, 7 October). How lack of access to information and

the-future-of-asias-battle-against-online-misinformation

ICTs has fueled disinformation in Malawi.  CIPESA. https://cipesa.

3  Colomina, C., Sánchez Margalef, H., & Youngs, R. (2021).  The impact

org/2020/10/how-lack-of-access-to-information-and-icts-has-

of disinformation on democratic processes and human rights in the

fueled-disinformation-in-malawi

world. European Union. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/

7  Ngwira, K. (2021, 13 January). A view from Malawi: Combating fake

etudes/STUD/2021/653635/EXPO_STU(2021)653635_EN.pdf

news and the “infondemic”.  Thomson Reuters Foundation. https://

4  CIPESA. (2021, 26 October). Combating disinformation in

www.trust.org/i/?id=9f827934-ce2c-4ad5-b0ed-d8abbce47881

Africa: Challenges and prospects. https://cipesa.org/2021/10/

8  https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL

combating-disinformation-in-africa-challenges-and-prospects/

9  https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD

MALAWI / 159

TABLE 1.

List of respondents who were interviewed.

Code

Position

Sector

Resp 1

Lawyer

Government

Resp 2

Digital human rights defender

Civil society

Resp 3

Gender specialist

Civil society

Resp 4

ICT expert

ICT regulator

Resp 5

ICT expert

Private

Resp 6

Researcher

Academia

Resp 7

Media expert

Print media

Resp 8

Police officer

Law enforcement

Resp 9

Policy expert

Academia

Resp 10

Political and social commentator

Academia

Resp 11

Representative

Tech companies

Resp 12

Representative

Community-based organisation

Resp 13

Media professional

Online media

Community  (SADC),10  online  misinformation  and

Poor access to ICT services such as the internet is

disinformation  are  on  the  rise.  International  Tele-

largely attributed to poor ICT infrastructure and high

communication Union (ITU) statistics show that 14%

tariff charges imposed on ICT services. These include

of the population uses the internet in Malawi while

16.5%  value  added  tax  (VAT)  on  internet  services,

52%  of  Malawians  have  mobile  phones.  Access  to

17.5% VAT  on  ICT  gadgets,  and  10%  excise  duty  on

mobile broadband is estimated at 25.5% and fixed-

mobile text messages and mobile data transfers.13

line broadband is 0.06%.11

Access  to  the  internet  is  cost-prohibitive  for

There are also gender disparities when it comes

the majority of Malawians. For instance, a monthly

to  ICT  ownership  in  the  country.  About  34.2%  of

data bundle of 10 gigabytes (GB) costs USD 21 with

women own a mobile phone, and 3.9% own a desk-

both Airtel and TNM. This cost is equivalent to half

top computer, while just 5.2% of them have access

the minimum monthly wage of the majority of Ma-

to the internet.12

lawians. Reflecting this, the Inclusive Internet Index

Meanwhile,  3%  of  the  population  has  internet

2021,  which  measures  internet  affordability,  avail-

access in rural areas compared to 24.3% in the urban

ability,  relevance  of  content  and  readiness,  ranked

population. Computer access in rural areas remains

Malawi 114th out of 120 countries.14

at 2.1% while it is 19.2% in urban areas.

Airtel (Mw) and Telecom Networks Malawi (TNM)

Methodology

remain  the  two  dominant  mobile  operators  in  the

To achieve the objectives of the report, the research-

country,  while  Malawi  Telecommunication  Limited

er  gathered  data  through  literature  and  policy

(MTL) is the only fixed-service provider. The Malawi

reviews,  and  conducted  online  in-depth  interviews

Communication and Regulatory Authority regulates

with  key  informants  representing  both  state  and

the telecommunication sector in the country

non-state institutions. About 13 experts drawn from

the ICT sectors, including journalists, media regula-

tors, editors, digital platform experts, digital rights

activists and civil society actors, participated in the

10  Malanga, D. F., & Simwaka, K. (2021). ICTs as potential enablers

of the green economy in the Southern African Development

study. Table 1 provides a list of respondents to the

Community. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  Global Information Society Watch

study,  their  positions  and  category  of  sectors  they

2020: Technology, the environment and a sustainable world:

belonged to.

Responses from the global South. Association for Progressive

Communications. https://giswatch.org/node/6230

11  https://www.itu.int/net4/ITU-D/idi/2017

12  Malanga, D. F. (2019). Framing the impact of artificial intelligence on

13  Kaiyatsa, M. (2020, 5 August). Digital rights remain under threat in

the protection of women’s rights in Malawi. In A. Finlay (Ed.),  Global

Malawi despite historic win for democracy.  Global Voices. https://

Information Society Watch 2019: Artificial intelligence: Human

advox.globalvoices.org/2020/08/05/digital-rights-remain-under-

rights, social justice and development.  Association for Progressive

threat-in-malawi-despite-historic-win-for-democracy

Communications and ARTICLE 19. https://giswatch.org/sites/

14  https://theinclusiveinternet.eiu.com/explore/countries/

default/files/gisw2019_web_malawi.pdf

performance

160  /  Global Information Society Watch

The  data  collected  from  the  respondents  was

also to democracy in the country. It emerged that the

analysed  thematically.  Specific  questions  that  re-

nature  or  forms  of  online  misinformation  and  disin-

spondents were asked included the following:

formation  focused  on  public  health,  socioeconomic

•  What do you understand about online misinfor-

issues  and  violence,  had  a  gender  dimension,  and

mation and disinformation?

included  cybercrime.  For  instance,  claims  that  the

COVID-19 pandemic was caused by 5G networks cir-

•  What is the prevalence of online misinformation

culated  online,  and  there  was  fake  news  about  the

and disinformation in the country?

treatment of COVID-19 using various concoctions and

•  What factors do you think are fuelling the spread

herbal  medicine.  Respondents  also  acknowledged

of online misinformation and disinformation?

that  gendered  online  misinformation  and  disinfor-

•  What  are  the  impacts  of  online  misinformation

mation such as false, misleading or harmful content

and disinformation?

that exploits gender inequalities16 or invokes gender

•  What  do  you  think  should  be  done  to  fight  or

stereotypes  and  norms  are  common.17  Furthermore,

tackle online misinformation and disinformation

respondents  also  noted  that  online  misinformation

in the country?

and  disinformation  about  the  COVID-19  vaccine  is

rampant. “People are told that vaccine is meant to kill

them, and it is associated with devil and the coming

Findings

of 666” (resp 8). Consequently, this has led to low up-

Defining online misinformation and disinformation

take of COVID-19 vaccines in the country.18

Moreover, politically motivated online disinforma-

Among  those  who  participated  in  the  study,  there

tion is also increasing. For instance, there has been

were significant disparities in the views on what con-

fake  news  circulating  on  various  digital  platforms

stitutes  online  misinformation  and  disinformation.

aimed at discrediting political opponents.19 This has

Some viewed online misinformation and disinforma-

exacerbated political violence in the country.

tion as the same, since they both deal with spreading

The observed motivations, according to the study

misleading  and  unverified  information.  Others

participants,  ranged  from  financial,  to  a  delight  in

viewed  online  misinformation  as  a  “broader  con-

causing mischief, and stoking political tensions. Re-

cept that deals with spreading fake news knowingly

spondents also indicated that online misinformation

or unknowingly” (resp 5), while disinformation was

and  disinformation  are  fuelled  by  the  mainstream

“about spreading wrong information aimed at harm-

media spreading fake news, the politicians using the

ing other people” (resp 7). From this it was clear that

media to discredit opponents, and the rapid increase

a lack of standardised or shared definitions of online

in the usage of social media such as WhatsApp and

misinformation and disinformation was a problem.

Facebook.

This  lack  of  consensus  on  definitions  has  been

Furthermore, it also emerged that the COVID-19

reported previously by scholars. Nevertheless, some

outbreak  has  intensified  the  spread  of  disinforma-

of  the  respondents’  understandings  were  close  to

tion in the country. It is therefore evident that online

generally  accepted  definitions  such  as  online  mis-

misinformation  and  disinformation  can  be  consid-

information  referring  to  the  spread  of  erroneous

ered prevalent in the country. They exist in the form

online information without the intention of causing

of  misleading,  fake,  fabricated,  manipulated  and

harm and online disinformation being a deliberate,

“imposter”  content  and  are  associated  with  public

coordinated  and  malicious  attempt  to  spread  false

health,  religious,  political,  gender,  social  and  eco-

information.15

nomic issues.

Prevalence of online misinformation

and disinformation and factors fuelling

16  EU DisinfoLab. (2021, 20 April). Gender-based disinformation:

Advancing our understanding and response. https://www.disinfo.

its dissemination

eu/publications/gender-based-disinformation-advancing-our-

understanding-and-response

The study also solicited views from respondents on

17  Scott, V. (2021).  Understanding the gendered dimension of

the nature and prevalence of online disinformation

disinformation. Countering Disinformation. https://

in Malawi.

counteringdisinformation.org/topics/gender/

There  was  a  consensus  among  participates  that

complete-document-gender-dimensions

18  Tembo, L. (2022, 2 January). Tackling COVID-19 vaccine

during the COVID-19 pandemic, online misinformation

misinformation through faith leaders.  UNICEF Malawi. https://www.

and disinformation was a major concern and remains

unicef.org/malawi/stories/tackling-covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-

an  existential  threat,  not  only  to  public  health,  but

through-faith-leaders

19  Kondowe, R. (2019, 10 May). Despite a low internet penetration,

Malawi is worried about fake news in its election run-up.  Quartz.

https://qz.com/africa/1616511/malawi-election-has-a-fake-news-problem-

15  Colomina, C., Sánchez Margalef, H., & Youngs, R. (2021). Op. cit.

on-whatsapp-facebook

MALAWI / 161

Impact of online misinformation and disinformation

and coercive behaviours such as cyber stalking

Respondents  were  asked  to  provide  their  percep-

or  harassment  on  social  media.  In  this  study,

tions on the consequences of online misinformation

participants acknowledged that online misinfor-

and  disinformation.  The  study  found  that  online

mation and disinformation result in an increase

misinformation  and  disinformation  have  negative

in  gender-based  cyber  violence  against  women

effects on people and society at large. Interviewees

and girls.24 This in turn has the potential to affect

noted that they have impacted negatively on human

the  victims  socially,  economically,  emotionally

rights  and  democratic  processes,20  and  resulted  in

and physically.25

digital violence and the repression of marginalised

•  Impact  of  the  COVID-19  infodemic  on  citizens:

groups such as women and minorities.21 The impacts

Respondents were also of the view that the COV-

can be divided into several categories:

ID-19 infodemic, which increased the spread of

•  Impact  on  human  rights:  Studies  have  shown

fake news such as hoaxes and conspiracy theo-

that online misinformation and disinformation in-

ries about the pandemic and vaccines, has also

fringe on human rights. Respondents stated that

led  to  a  mistrust  in  public  institutions,  putting

it  affected  the  right  of  freedom  of  thought  and

the lives of people at risk. Online disinformation

the right to hold opinions without interference.

spread during the pandemic has included disin-

The  right  to  privacy  and  freedom  of  expression

formation legitimised by being falsely attributed

both online and offline were hampered. In addi-

to well-known public or political figures.26 It also

tion,  online  misinformation  and  disinformation

became  clear  that  some  of  the  regulations  tar-

also  negatively  affected  the  economic,  social

geting misinformation and disinformation during

and cultural rights of citizens in the country.

the pandemic have involved new limits on press

freedom and resulted in censorship tools that are

•  Impact  on  democratic  processes:  The  arriv-

likely to be used beyond the COVID-19 crisis.27

al  of  COVID-19  coincided  with  the  rerun  of  the

presidential  elections  in  2020,  after  the  2019

Approaches to fighting online misinformation

presidential elections were annulled by Malawi’s

and disinformation

Constitutional Court for serious irregularities. In

this regard, political misinformation and disinfor-

In taking measures to address the entire spectrum of

mation  exacerbated  the  mistrust  of  democratic

online misinformation and disinformation, it is impor-

processes  and  institutions  such  as  the  courts

tant to look at the different actors involved, together

and parliamentary processes, as well as of politi-

with their actions taken.28 In this study, participants

cal figures. Some journalists and political figures

were  asked  about  the  approaches  that  the  govern-

have  been  frequent  targets  for  online  attacks.

ment,  digital  platforms,  civil  society,  and  academia

Due to the spread of online political disinforma-

have taken to address the spread of online misinfor-

tion, citizens may pull out from participating in

mation and disinformation in the country. It was noted

public  affairs,  believing  that  behind-the-scenes

that the respondents had different opinions:

political interference would make their participa-

•  Government:  On  the  part  of  the  government,  it

tion ineffective.

was  noted  that  existing  laws  can  help  to  fight

•  Cyber  violence  and  the  repression  of  vulner-

online  misinformation  and  disinformation.

able  groups:  Article  20(2)  of  the  International

These include the Penal Code (1930),29 Commu-

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states that

nications Act (1998), Electronic Transaction and

“any  advocacy  of  national,  racial  or  religious

Cyber  Security  Act  (2016),  Access  to  Informa-

hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimina-

tion Act (2016) and Data Protection Bill (2021).30

tion, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by

law.”22 Online disinformation is often associated

24  Malanga, D. F. (2021b).  Survey of cyber violence against women in

with  the  rise  of  cyber  violence  against  women,

Malawi. Proceedings of the 1st Virtual Conference on Implications

girls,  children  and  other  vulnerable  groups.23

of Information and Digital Technologies for Development. https://

arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/2108/2108.09806.pdf

Cyber  violence  includes  a  range  of  controlling

25  Malanga, D.F (2021a). Op. cit.

26  Pierri, F., et al. (2021).  Online misinformation is linked to early

20  Colomina, C., Sánchez Margalef, H., & Youngs, R. (2021). Op. cit.

COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy and refusal. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/

21  Okeleke, K., & Robinson, J. (2021). Op. cit.

abs/2104.10635

22  https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx

27  Colomina, C., Sánchez Margalef, H., & Youngs, R. (2021). Op. cit.

23  Malanga, D. F. (2021a).  Tackling gender-based cyber violence

28  Ibid.

against women and girls in Malawi amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.

29  https://malawilii.org/akn/mw/act/1929/22/eng%402014-12-31

African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms Coalition.

30  Malanga, D. F. (2020).  Londa: Malawi Digital Rights and Inclusion

https://africaninternetrights.org/sites/default/files/Donald_

2020 Report. Paradigm Initiative. https://paradigmhq.org/report/

Flywell-1.pdf

londa-malawi-digital-rights-inclusion-2020-report

162  /  Global Information Society Watch

While  there  was  a  consensus  among  research

noted that digital literacy programmes in higher

participants on the need for the government to

education have focused on students, and there

regulate harmful online content, others criticised

was  no  wider  policy  initiative  to  expand  digital

the  move  as  a  precursor  to  suppressing  civic

literacy  programmes  to  the  general  public,  in-

space  and  freedom  of  expression.  Participants

cluding  for  different  age  groups,  as  one  of  the

questioned  the  effectiveness  of  these  existing

ways  of  combating  online  misinformation  and

laws  and  ways  in  which  the  government  has

disinformation in the country.

applied them to silence critics. Apart from legal

measures,  some  participants  identified  raising

Obstacles to combating online

the digital literacy of the general public as an es-

misinformation and disinformation

sential means to combating misinformation and

Despite  the  various  approaches  that  the  govern-

disinformation in Malawi.

ment, civil society and digital platforms are using to

•  Digital  platforms:  Studies  have  shown  that

combat  online  misinformation  and  disinformation

digital platforms such as Twitter, Facebook and

in  the  country,  there  are  still  a  number  of  ongoing

YouTube, among others, have introduced a num-

obstacles  that  undermine  effective  responses.  The

ber of measures in recent years to tackle online

study found that the massive flow of information and

misinformation  and  disinformation.  Salient  ex-

content across national boundaries makes it difficult

amples  include  content  removal,  platform  bans

to  fight  online  misinformation  and  disinformation,

and  feature  limits  (such  as  limiting  the  num-

especially  where  there  is  disagreement  on  what

ber  of  words  that  can  be  typed  or  shared  via

constitutes misinformation or disinformation. It was

Twitter),  and  fact-checking  and  digital  literacy

also  noted  that  the  government  has  used  existing

initiatives. However, in this study, the majority of

laws to silence critics. This has a negative effect on

participants identified few measures that digital

freedom of speech, media freedom and political plu-

platforms have used to combat online misinfor-

ralism. Some civil society participants also accused

mation  and  disinformation  in  the  country.  The

the government of using existing laws to target their

participants suggested removing online content

political  opponents,  religious  groups,  journalists

and banning perpetrators from digital platforms

and  human  rights  defenders.  Besides  this,  it  was

as measures.

revealed that the government has little control over

•  Civil  society:  Civil  society  is  critical  in  counter-

social media, where most misinformation and disin-

ing  online  misinformation  and  disinformation.

formation are shared and consumed.32

This may involve a variety of programmes such

Furthermore,  it  was  found  that  despite  digi-

as  fact  checking,  advocacy  focused  on  govern-

tal  platforms  making  significant  efforts  to  combat

ment  or  on  online  platforms,  public  awareness

online  misinformation  and  disinformation  in  the

campaigns,  identifying  online  disinformation

country, they face a number of challenges. The de-

narratives,  and  building  trusted  networks  for

tection of online misinformation and disinformation

sharing  accurate  information.31  In  this  study,  it

on different platforms is difficult. The digital platform

was  found  that  most  research  participants  ac-

representative stated that online content encrypted

knowledge that civil society organisations have

by digital platforms make it difficult to detect misin-

not done enough to combat online misinforma-

formation and alert users about its spread.

tion  and  disinformation.  However,  it  was  noted

Despite their efforts, digital platforms were crit-

that  collaborations  between  and  among  digital

icised  by  some  research  participants  for  a  lack  of

platforms,  government  regulators  and  interna-

transparency.  Digital  platforms  provide  inadequate

tional  organisations  can  help  to  build  stronger

reporting on the scale of disinformation and misin-

resilience  and  cooperation  in  tackling  online

formation  and  were  not  being  transparent  enough

misinformation and disinformation challenges.

about what they are doing to manage them.

While  the  lack  of  consensus  on  definitions  of

•  Academia:  In  the  context  of  academia,  it  was

online  misinformation  and  disinformation  among

found  that  while  acknowledging  the  bourgeon-

stakeholders makes it difficult to define proper strat-

ing of online disinformation and misinformation

egies for addressing them, respondents agreed that

in  the  country,  higher  education  institutions

a  lack  of  engagement  and  collaboration  between

have done very little research on the topic. It was

all stakeholders on the problem made it even more

difficult  to  address  the  issue  properly.  These  in-

31  Studdart, A. (2021).  Building capacity for civil society to mitigate

cluded policy makers, civil society, tech companies,

and counter disinformation. Countering Disinformation.

https://counteringdisinformation.org/topics/csos/

complete-document-civil-society

32  Ngwira, K. (2021, 13 January). Op. cit.

MALAWI / 163

academia,  grassroots  community-based  organisa-

•  Develop online tools for empowering both infor-

tions and media groups.

mation users and providers: There is a need to

develop tools for empowering users and informa-

Conclusion

tion providers such as journalists to tackle online

The  study  has  revealed  that  online  misinformation

misinformation and disinformation and enhance

and disinformation are bourgeoning in the country.

positive  engagement  with  fast  and  emerging

While the two phenomena are not new, a number of

digital  technologies  in  the  country.34  Some  ex-

factors have fuelled them: the unprecedented growth

amples  of  existing  tools  include  Checkology,

of  social  media  usage;  the  involvement  of  main-

ClaimBuster, Fake Bananas, Botometer, Disinfor-

stream  media  in  spreading  false  information;  the

mation Index and NewsCheck Trust Index.35

influence of politics on the media; and the outbreak

•  Strengthen  transparency  and  accountability:

of the COVID-19 crisis. The study has also found that

There is a need to improve the transparency of

online  disinformation  and  misinformation  have  im-

online information sources, as well as the sourc-

pacted  on  human  rights  and  democratic  processes

es of funding that allow content to be developed.

and increased gender-based cyber violence and the

Fact-checking practices and initiatives need to be

repression  of  vulnerable  groups.  Furthermore,  it

strengthened.36 The lack of transparency among

found that despite various initiatives to address the

content developers may contribute to conspira-

challenge  (including  legislation  and  interventions

cy theories, particularly if they are not willing to

by  digital  platforms),  the  lack  of  coordinated  and

reveal their sources of funding and the way they

collaborative efforts among stakeholders remains a

operate. This in turn may lead to breeding online

problem. While substantial progress has been made

misinformation and disinformation.

to combat online misinformation and disinformation

•  Promote  research  and  development:  There  is

in the country, ongoing challenges remain clear. To

a  need  to  continue  researching  the  impact  of

address these ongoing obstacles, multistakeholder

online  misinformation  and  disinformation  in

and multidimensional approaches are required.

Malawi, including reviews of the steps taken by

Action steps

different actors, in order to constantly encourage

the necessary adjustments to responses.

Based  on  the  findings  of  the  study,  the  following

multi-dimensional action steps are proposed:

•  Protect  the  diversity  and  sustainability  of  the

digital media ecosystem: This can be in the form

•  Improve  media  and  information  literacy:  Em-

of supporting actions that encourage press free-

powering the users of platform services is a key

dom and pluralism; the funding of projects that

element  to  increase  the  resilience  of  society

support quality digital journalism; and investing

to  various  forms  of  online  misinformation  and

in  research  and  innovative  actions  to  improve

disinformation.33  There  is  therefore  a  need  to

technologies  for  online  media  services  in  the

promote media and information literacy to coun-

country.

ter  online  misinformation  and  disinformation.

This will help users to navigate the digital media

environment more effectively and identify online

misinformation  and  disinformation  when  they

occur. Actions for supporting media and informa-

tion literacy programmes for people of all ages

should be developed.

34  Ibid.

35  For more examples of tools see: Stellino, M. (2019, 24 January). 8

resources to detect fake news.  News Co/Lab. https://newscollab.

org/2019/01/24/8-resources-to-detect-fake-news and https://

33  European Commission High Level Expert Group on Fake News and

www.rand.org/research/projects/truth-decay/fighting-

Online Disinformation. (2018).  A multi-dimensional approach to

disinformation/search.html

disinformation: Report of the independent High Level Group on fake

36  Lubisi, N. (2021, 20 October). A multi-stakeholder partnership

news and online disinformation. European Commission. https://

to combat disinformation.  Media Monitoring Africa. https://

coinform.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/EU-High-Level-Group-on-

mediamonitoringafrica.org/media-release-a-multi-stakeholder-

Disinformation-A-multi-dimensionalapproachtodisinformation.pdf

partnership-to-combat-disinformatio

164  /  Global Information Society Watch

MEXICO

LESSONS LEARNED ON THE DESIGN OF A STATE CONNECTIVITY PLAN

FOR INDIGENOUS AND RURAL COMMUNITIES DURING COVID-19

technology availability and usage,  Encuesta Nacional

Centro de Investigación en Tecnologías y Saberes

Comunitarios

sobre Disponibilidad y Uso de Tecnologías de la Infor-

Carlos F. Baca-Feldman

mación en los Hogares 2020,1 the number of internet

https://citsac.org/en

users  over  the  age  of  six  in  2015  was  62.4  million

(57.4%), rising to a total of 84.1 million (72%) in 2020.

This means that in five years, the number of total us-

Introduction

ers increased by over 20 million, or 14.6% of the target

The arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 marked

population. However, a close analysis of the statistics

a turning point in the social, political, economic and

suggests  that  this  continuous  growth  has  not  been

cultural life of almost every country in the world. Un-

the same for  all the people living in the country. For

der  these  sudden  and  unexpected  circumstances,

example,  in  rural  areas  only  50.4%  of  the  popula-

access to the digital world appeared to many of us

tion  uses  the  internet,  compared  to  78.3%  in  urban

as  the  “great  solution  to  the  pandemic”.  However,

areas. This data helps us to understand the problem

since 2020, the inequalities generated by the digital

that  accessing  and  exchanging  information  through

divide  have  become  increasingly  evident,  bringing

information and communications technologies (ICTs)

with them a series of public policies and actions un-

poses for half of the rural population and a little more

dertaken by various stakeholders.

than 20% of the urban population in Mexico.

This report reflects on the public policies aimed

The  actions  developed  by  the  Mexican  federal

at  expanding  coverage  and  access  to  telecommu-

government  during  the  COVID-19  pandemic  have

nications  services  in  Mexico,  which  have  not  been

focused  on  the  dissemination  of  information,  not

particularly successful during the pandemic. What we

on  the  expansion  of  access  to  telecommunications

have observed is the repetition of public connectivity

services  among  the  unconnected  population.  For

policies that have not been successful in the past.

example,  ICTs  have  been  used  to  disseminate  in-

The  report  offers  a  brief  review  of  these  feder-

formation about the pandemic through daily media

al  strategies  before  considering  the  importance  of

conferences that have been streamed live on social

local  and  state  governments  in  creating  enabling

networks and broadcast on some mass media, and

environments for the full access of their population

television and radio were used to broadcast educa-

to telecommunications services. The report then de-

tional content to the millions of children who could

scribes  the  design  of  a  strategic  connectivity  plan,

not  go  to  school.  Yet  public  connectivity  policies

developed by the civil association Redes por la Di-

have  not  undergone  significant  changes  since  the

versidad, Equidad y Sustentabilidad (REDES) for the

arrival of the pandemic.

Coordination of Digital Policy (CPD), an office set up

This does not mean that the importance of con-

by the government of the state of Chihuahua which

necting  the  unconnected  is  not  understood,  but

was in power from 2016 to 2021.

rather that the imagination and understanding of the

This  report  draws  on  the  results  of  a  collective

problem by policy makers has not gone beyond the

process of research and analysis in which many or-

unsuccessful strategies that have already been devel-

ganisations  have  been  involved,  including  REDES,

oped. That is, they see the solution primarily through

Construcción de Mundos Alternativos Ronco Robles,

the expansion of coverage. Instead, it may be a matter

Rhizomatica,  and  the  civil  association  Telecomu-

of starting from communication and access to infor-

nicaciones  Indígenas  Comunitarias,  among  other

mation needs rather than connectivity, so that public

stakeholders who are committed to developing rel-

policies can become more targeted and relevant.2

evant digital strategies in Chihuahua.

1  INEGI. (2020a).  Encuesta Nacional sobre Disponibilidad y Uso de

What is the status of Mexico’s national

Tecnologías de la Información en los Hogares. https://www.inegi.

digital strategy?

org.mx/programas/dutih/2020

2  Baca-Feldman, C. F., Belli, L., Huerta, E., & Velasco, K.

A quick look at connectivity rates in Mexico shows that

(2018).  Community Networks in Latin America: Challenges,

there is continuous growth in the number of internet

Regulations and Solutions. ISOC, APC, FGV Direito Rio & REDES

AC. https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2018/

users.  According  to  a  national  household  survey  on

community-networks-in-latin-america

MEXICO / 165

Throughout the government of President Andrés

connectivity  strategy  promoted  by  a  government

Manuel López Obrador (2018-2024), actions related

should  not  seek  to  centralise  its  projects,  concen-

to the national connectivity strategy have been as-

trate solely on extending coverage, or think only in

signed to the Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE),

the  short  term.  In  general,  to  mitigate  access  bar-

under the name of CFE Telecom Internet para Todos

riers, it is necessary to contextualise and reflect on

(“Internet  for  All”).3  Although  there  is  no  well-de-

the  livelihoods,  development  objectives  and  com-

fined  comprehensive  strategy,4  we  can  highlight

munication  needs  that  exist  in  the  localities  to  be

two  actions  undertaken  by  this  agency. The  first  is

served.9

the creation of the shared network and the second

In  this  sense,  the  role  of  local  and  state  gov-

the  implementation  of  “digital  villages”  in  rural

ernments  becomes  fundamental:  because  they  are

localities.

closer to their populations, they can design very di-

The shared network is a wholesale network op-

verse strategies and address issues from a different

erated by Altán Redes5 where mobile virtual network

point of view.

operators (MVNOs) offer 4.5G services to end users.

With  this  network,  the  government  expects  to  pro-

What are the challenges of designing a

vide  coverage  to  92%  of  the  population  by  2024.6

connectivity policy in Chihuahua?

However,  although  the  shared  network  infrastruc-

The strategic connectivity plan for the northern state

ture has been deployed in a large part of the country,

of  Chihuahua,  developed  by  the  civil  association

it has not become competitive in the market. Despite

REDES in a consultancy for the CPD, was part of the

this,  it  is  important  to  note  that  this  network  has

hyper-convergent connectivity plan10 through which

allowed  new  players  to  enter  the  mobile  telecom-

the  state  backbone  network  was  expanded  and

munications market , including the first Indigenous

modernised  and  issues  of  redundancy  were  dealt

MVNO in the world: Wiki Katat, run by the civil asso-

with.  The  main  questions  they  addressed  were  1)

ciation Tosepan Limaxtum.7

how to enable the state’s infrastructure to meet its

The  digital  villages  consist  of  internet  access

connectivity targets, and 2) how to support the drive

points using the state’s satellite capacity to connect

for universal coverage and appropriation of ICTs.

rural localities.8 However, recent history has proved

The state of Chihuahua has specific challenges

that  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  projects  that  aim

in the development of a digital strategy. It is the larg-

to  create  access  points  in  rural  areas  manage  to

est state in the country, covering 12.6% of the total

solve an immediate problem, but lack sustainability

Mexican territory. Some 43.5% of this is taken up by

strategies that would allow them to function in the

the  Sierra  Tarahumara  mountain  range,  one  of  the

medium and long term.

most  rugged  territories  in  the  country.  In  addition,

Because  of  these  challenges,  it  is  necessary  to

the  population  density  is  only  15  inhabitants  per

look at the problem from different angles to achieve

square  kilometre  –  7.5%  of  the  population  lives  in

enabling  environments  that  allow  for  efficient  and

communities of less than 250 inhabitants while 9.5%

sustainable  connectivity  projects  over  time.  Fol-

lives in towns of between 250 and 5,000 people.11 It

lowing this, it is crucial to address the fact that the

is also important to note that four Indigenous peo-

ples live in Chihuahua’s territory: the Pimas (O’oba),

3  https://www.gob.mx/cedn

the  Guarijíos,  the  Tepehuanos  and  the  Rarámuris.

4  The main criticisms of this strategy have been the lack of a

Almost  all  of  these  Indigenous  peoples  are  highly

diagnosis and analysis of the challenges faced by the country’s

unconnected population, as well as the need to address barriers

marginalised, whether they live on the outskirts of

that go beyond coverage and the repetition of unsuccessful

the  main  cities  or  in  one  of  the  5,349  rural  Indige-

government programmes. More information is available in Spanish

in Flores Ramírez, G. (2021, 17 August). La Estrategia Digital

nous communities in the territory.12

Nacional que no es.  El Economista.  https://www.eleconomista.

com.mx/opinion/La-Estrategia-Digital-Nacional-que-no-

es-20210817-0013.html

9  A methodology that allows the choice of relevant technologies

5  https://www.altanredes.com

in community contexts can be found in: Parra Hinojosa, D., &

6  There is no definition yet of what will happen to the 8% of the

Baca-Feldman, C. (2021).  ¿Y si repensamos las tecnologías para la

population that will not be covered by this scheme. Models such as

comunicación?  REDES AC. https://bit.ly/2OhnXCQ

community networks have been proposed, but there is no real effort

10  El Economista. (2019, 1 August). Chihuahua invertirá 600 millones

to develop such schemes.

de pesos para red de telecomunicaciones.  El Economista. https://

7  This initiative is part of a comprehensive autonomous

www.eleconomista.com.mx/estados/Chihuahua-invertira-600-

communication project developed by the Unión de Cooperativas

millones-de-pesos-para-red-de-telecomunicaciones-20190801-0127.

Tosepan Titataniske in the Sierra Norte of Puebla, which includes

html

different ICTs such as community intranets, community radio and

11  INEGI. (2020b).  Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda. https://

creation of local content, among other projects.

www.inegi.org.mx/programas/ccpv/2020

8  Bravo, J. (2022, 7 January). Aldeas inteligentes.  Revista Proceso.

12  Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas.

https://www.proceso.com.mx/opinion/2022/1/7/aldeas-

(2010).  Catálogo de Localidades Indígenas. https://www.inpi.gob.

inteligentes-278711.html

mx/localidades2010-gobmx/index.html

166  /  Global Information Society Watch

In terms of access to ICTs, 78% of the population

of life, the characteristics including the communica-

uses  the  internet  and  80%  uses  mobile  phones.13

tions needs of the users, and the characteristics of

However,  these  percentages  correspond  mainly  to

the physical environment of the territory – and pro-

65.5%  of  the  population  living  in  the  state’s  two

duces  appropriate  alternative  access  models  that

largest cities. In terms of territorial coverage of 4G

can be developed.

mobile networks, Telcel, the largest mobile operator

For example, in order to determine the most ap-

in Mexico, covers only 4.8% of the state, while Altán

propriate network for each of the social groups in the

Redes covers 2.3%. Both have the highest coverage.

Sierra Tarahumara, during field research, Indigenous

Their competitors AT&T and Telefónica do not even

authorities pointed out that while it was important

reach 1%.14

for them to communicate with each other, it was not

Although  the  state’s  strategic  plan  does  not

necessarily crucial to have access to the internet all

specifically focus on the actions needed to address

the time. In contrast, the mestizo people living in the

the  COVID-19  crisis,  it  does  intend  to  address  one

region emphasised the importance of access to infor-

of  the  main  problems  underlying  the  inequalities

mation and online tourism and agriculture services.

exacerbated  by  the  pandemic:  full  access  to  tele-

This distinction was fundamental to understanding

communications  services.  The  problems  brought

that a connectivity strategy is not just about internet

by  the  current  pandemic  intersect  with  others  that

access, but about the uses of technologies that are

pre-existed  in  Chihuahua,  such  as  the  presence  of

specific and necessary in each context.

extractive  industries  and  organised  crime,  the  lack

Considering this information and other data such

of  economic  resources,  irreversible  environmental

as the size of the locality and its political organisa-

deterioration,  discrimination  against  the  region’s

tion,  it  was  proposed  to  use  high  frequency  (HF)

inhabitants,  and  a  dependency  on  charitable

networks for communities of up to 200 inhabitants,

organisations.

almost all of them Indigenous. This was suggested

In  this  context,  a  public  digital  policy  must  be

not only because of the range of HF networks (a few

sufficiently robust, and consider all the necessary in-

thousand  kilometres),  ease  of  use,  and  price,  but

terrelated factors that determine meaningful access,

also because of the history of local use of HF devic-

while remaining open enough to avoid creating pro-

es,  which  the  people  called   radiecitos  chismosos

jects that depend only on the state. In other words, it

(gossip radios).

has been necessary to closely analyse the intersec-

In the larger localities or meeting points in the

tionality  of  factors  that  must  be  addressed  to  deal

region, internet connectivity is offered through the

with a crisis such as the one arising from COVID-19

resale of tokens for Wi-Fi connectivity lasting one

in terms of access to digital services.

hour to several days. But the cost of these services

for users is very high, and there is no real benefit

Outcomes and proposals of the strategic plan

for  those  who  resell  the  tokens  in  the  communi-

for connectivity in Chihuahua

ties.  This  contrasts  with  the  accepted  idea  that

A key element in connectivity strategies must be the

through internet access, the economic conditions

attentive  choice  of  technologies  relevant  to  each

of the population will improve. In reality, the peo-

context, and the existing ways of life and needs of

ple are negatively financially affected by internet

the  people  in  these  contexts.  Because  of  this,  the

access as it implies a very high cost for families.

main methodology used in the consultancy was the

Therefore,  a  public  connectivity  policy  in  these

idea of “percolation”.15 This methodology proposes

cases  must  work  in  coordination  with  regional

the identification of three main elements – the ways

internet service providers (ISPs) and people from

the  communities  themselves.  For  example,  free

access points can be established in exchange for

13  INEGI. (2020a) Op. cit.

infrastructure subsidies to reach communities. In

14  Instituto Federal de Telecomunicaciones. (2020).  Quién es Quién en

the  strategic  connectivity  plan,  combinations  of

Cobertura Móvil en México. http://www.ift.org.mx/sites/default/

files/contenidogeneral/politica-regulatoria/qesqmovil2020t4.pdf

local ISP services, community mesh networks and

15  The percolator is an instrument used to make coffee through the

local  4G  MVNOs  were  proposed  for  communities

circulation of pressurised water. Due to the increase in temperature,

bigger than 200 inhabitants.

it manages to transmit the essence of the coffee. In this case, the

methodology refers to the identification of characteristics that

The  final  document  was  divided  into  two  parts.

shape community life to discover the essence of the processes that

The  first  part  consists  of  an  infrastructure  and  ser-

create the community, allowing the choice of relevant technologies.

More information in Mallalieu, K., & Rocke, S. (2007). Selecting

vices  plan,  which  addresses  elements  such  as  the

Sustainable ICT Solutions for Pro-Poor Intervention. In H. Galperin

use  of  the  active  and  passive  infrastructure  of  the

& J. Mariscal (Eds.),  Digital Poverty: Latin American and Caribbean

state network, and changes to regulation to encour-

Perspectives. International Development Research Centre. http://

dirsi.net/sites/default/files/dirsi_07_DP06_en.pdf

age access to information on coverage and essential

MEXICO / 167

infrastructure. The second part focuses on the design

it is necessary to look beyond the same “infrastruc-

of  a  public  policy  model  for  universal  coverage  and

ture-only” strategies that have failed time and again.

ownership of ICTs, including these main elements:

Regardless of the possibilities of implementing

•  Collaboration with local ISPs for the deployment

the recommended actions, a good example has been

of infrastructure and improvement in the quality

set by the Chihuahua state government under Corral

of services.

by allowing the development of the plan, taking the

necessary  time  to  understand  the  communication

•  Development  and  support  of  technical  training

needs and the context of the local communities from

programmes aimed at community technicians.

an external viewpoint. This may also present bene-

•  Promotion  of  technological  innovation,  entre-

fits for other local or state governments that want to

preneurship and applied research in community

consider  this  experience  as  a  reference  for  the  de-

contexts.

sign of their own connectivity policies.

•  Creating  the  conditions  for  training  in  content

One last remark: despite the push for connectiv-

production and dissemination, and the preserva-

ity as a vital necessity from which it is impossible to

tion of local content.

escape,  as  far  as  possible,  it  remains  important  to

allow  for  communities  to  be  disconnected.  Access,

In mid-2021, an opposition government took power

in other words, should be determined by community

in  the  state  of  Chihuahua,  bringing  Javier  Corral’s

needs, rather than by a top-down coercion of inter-

administration, which had run the state from 2016

net use through the provision of essential services

to 2021, to an end. Since then, many of the projects

online only. This is why is important to keep in mind

undertaken  during  the  previous  administration

a digital strategy that outlines the most appropriate

have  been  dismantled. The  CPD  disappeared,  and

communications platforms for each person, commu-

the strategic connectivity plan has remained a doc-

nity  or  organisation.  It  is  important  to  define  how,

ument only.

when  and  for  what  purpose  communities  want  to

However, the importance of this process, beyond

connect. How would the role of states and the differ-

government implementation, was the strengthening

ent key actors change if this was the approach? This

of a network of key actors dedicated to developing

is a question that remains crucially open.

strategies to mitigate the lack of connectivity in the

Sierra  Tarahumara.  By  February  2022,  the  network

Action steps

had  held  training  workshops  on  the  creation  of

audiovisual content by children, trained community

To  develop  meaningful  state-level  connectivity

technicians in the deployment of HF radio networks,

plans, it is important to:

and developed cybersecurity strategies for civil soci-

•  Consider the information access needs of those

ety organisations working in the territory.

who do not have access to the internet, as well

as those who are already online. Simply provid-

Conclusion

ing  information  online  is  not  sufficient  to  meet

The process of designing a state connectivity strat-

the  information  needs  of  the  population.  This

egy  taught  us  many  lessons.  These  included  the

was a key learning from the COVID-19 crisis.

importance  of  creating  public  connectivity  policies

•  Think in terms of solving communication needs

for local or state governments, in Mexico and other

rather than simply connecting communities.

countries  with  a  similar  political  structure,  without

•  Consider  challenges  in  relation  to  each  other,

absolute  dependence  on  what  is  dictated  at  the

rather  than  in  isolation  from  each  other.  The

national  level.  To  achieve  this,  solutions  must  be

pandemic has taught us that understanding how

provided  in  collaboration  with  key  actors,  such  as

issues relate to each other is a starting point for

local  wireless  ISPs,  civil  society  organisations  and

sustainable and useful connectivity projects.

universities, but above all with the target communi-

ties themselves.

•  Think  about  how  to  collaborate  with  local  gov-

It  is  also  important  to  stress  that  although  the

ernments and stakeholders like ISPs in defining

COVID-19  pandemic  has  intensified  people’s  need

connectivity strategies that are contextually rel-

for  connectivity,  we  should  always  address  this

evant and sustainable.

problem  in  relation  to  the  many  other  issues  they

•  Always take into consideration the choice of rel-

face. In other words, public connectivity policies are

evant technologies and the communities’ right to

indispensable  today,  but  to  develop  them  properly

be disconnected from the internet.

168  /  Global Information Society Watch

MOZAMBIQUE

THE NEED TO STRENGTHEN A BROAD-BASED HUMAN RIGHTS

MOVEMENT IN MOZAMBIQUE

Mozambique  had  among  the  lowest  mobile  phone

Dércio Tsandzana1

@derciotsandzana

and internet penetration rates at that time, 30% and

10%, respectively.6 In 2019, Research ICT Africa (RIA)

reported  that  Mozambique  had  the  lowest  mobile

Introduction

phone adoption level (50%) and, at 36%, the second

highest gender disparity level after Rwanda’s, which

With the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, there

was  38%.7  RIA’s  nationally  representative  informa-

has  been  increased  attention  on  the  state-citizen

tion  and  communications  technology  (ICT)  access

relationship,  and  the  fact  that  many  governments

and use survey was part of a survey of 20 countries

have used the law to restrict civic space, for exam-

in the global South (10 in Africa) that canvassed bar-

ple, by putting limitations on freedoms for citizens

riers to access for people who were not connected,

to  demonstrate.2  The  government  of  Mozambique

as well as the challenges to optimal internet usage

is  one  such  government. This  report  discusses  the

even where there was coverage or an individual had

state of human rights during the COVID-19 pandem-

connectivity.

ic  in  Mozambique,  focusing  on  the  threats  against

activists and the strategies that have been used by

Beyond the laws, the threat to freedoms

civil society organisations to report through digital

in Mozambique

platforms in the country.3

The findings are based on a collection of cases

Mozambique  introduced  its  first  legal  provision  re-

and  narratives  of  human  rights  violations  that  oc-

garding  civic  participation  in  its  1990  constitution,

curred  during  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  as  well  as

reflected,  months  later,  in  the  laws  on  the  right  to

ethnographic  observation  carried  out  in  the  virtual

free  association  and  the  rights  to  freedom  of  as-

space  (netnography),

sembly  and  to  demonstrate.  The  constitution  of

4  by  following  internet  social

networks and news reports. Since Mozambique is a

Mozambique  (article  48)  guarantees  the  rights  of

Portuguese-speaking  country,  the  main  references

freedom of expression and access to information. It

were consequently translated into English.

stipulates that all citizens have the right to freedom

Mozambique  is  a  country  with  low  internet  ac-

of  expression,  as  well  as  the  right  to  information;

cess  (23%),  which  creates  inequalities  between

and that freedom of the press includes, in particular,

the different regions throughout the country. Of the

the freedom of journalistic expression, creativity and

country’s  7.54  million  internet  users,  around  three

access to information. Despite these constitutional

million  people  connect  to  social  media  networks,

provisions, the country faces several challenges with

most  of  them  using  Facebook.

respect to freedom of expression.

5  The  telecommu-

nications  market  is  dominated  by  three  major

State-run  outlets  dominate  the  Mozambican

service  providers.  These  are  Tmcel,  Vodacom  and

media sector, and the authorities often direct these

Movitel. According to the 2017 After Access Survey

outlets  to  provide  coverage  favourable  to  the  gov-

conducted across 16 countries in the global South,

ernment. While there are a few independent media

outlets that provide important coverage, their jour-

nalists frequently experience government pressure,

1  PhD candidate, Political Science, France.

harassment  and  intimidation,  which  encourages

2  Pereira, C., Forquilha, S., & Shankland, A. (2021). Revisitar o

self-censorship.8  The  revision  of  the  Press  Law  is

Espaço Cívico Moçambicano em Tempo de Crise.  Informação sobre

still under discussion and is expected to be passed

Desenvolvimento, Instituições e Análise Social, 145P. https://

opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/16935

by  the  parliament  in  2022.  However,  it  has  been

3  Pereira, C., & Forquilha, S. (2020).  Navigating Civic Spaces

in Mozambique: Baseline Report. Institute for Social and

Economic Studies. https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/

6  https://researchictafrica.net/data/after-access-surveys

handle/20.500.12413/16563

7  Gillwald, A., Mothobi, O., & Rademan, B. (2019).  The State of ICT in

4  Kozinets, R. (2011).  What is netnography?  [Video]. SAGE Research

Mozambique. Research ICT Africa. https://researchictafrica.net/

Methods. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412995511

wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2019_After-Access_The-state-of-

5  Kemp, S. (2022, 15 February). Digital 2022: Mozambique.

ICT-in-Mozambique.pdf

DataReportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/

8  https://freedomhouse.org/country/mozambique/

digital-2022-mozambique

freedom-world/2021

MOZAMBIQUE / 169

developed  without  sufficient  stakeholder  input,

independence.14 Citizens must follow several restric-

and includes provisions that many feel will be used

tive measures that limit the circulation of people and

against the media. Some activists also say that this

goods, according to the state of emergency decree.15

is  also  not  an  appropriate  moment  to  approve  the

To ensure the rapid flow of critical, accurate public

law,9 due to the risks of it being used to censor the

health  information  during  this  time,  several  digital

media while the country is locked in a war that has

platforms  have  emerged  in  the  private  and  public

affected northern Mozambique since 2017.10

sector. However, these platforms and initiatives lack

In recent years, different instruments for meas-

clarity in terms of how they work and what potential

uring  civic  participation,  such  as  Afrobarometer

impact they may have on data privacy and personal

surveys  or  democracy  indices,  have  been  showing

security.16

a  tendency  for  democracy  and,  consequently,  for

civic space to deteriorate in Mozambique. For exam-

Civil society organisations and digital rights

ple, Afrobarometer surveys show that from 2011 to

With the COVID-19 pandemic, connectivity challeng-

2015 the demand for democracy dropped from 25%

es  increased,  and  consequently  left  many  people

(2011-2013) to 9% (2014-2015), one of the sharpest

unable  to  enjoy  their  digital  rights.  Infrastructure

declines in sub-Saharan Africa among countries cov-

could  not  cope  with  increased  demand  and  many

ered by the survey.11 Civil society groups meanwhile

more people now needed to be online but could not

claim  that  the  authorities  monitor  criticism  of  the

afford to be. This has increased the digital divide. The

government  posted  online.12  There  have  also  been

violation of human rights in Mozambique also seems

reports of government intelligence agents monitor-

to have been a major concern for many civil society

ing the emails of opposition party members.

organisations.17  For  example,  in  2020,  citizens  de-

In  this  context  I  focus  on  some  initiatives  that

nounced the excessive use of force by the police to

have  been  implemented  by  civil  society  organisa-

enforce the state of emergency. At that time, a civil

tions  and  civic  groups  for  the  promotion  of  human

society  organisation  called  Centre  for  Democracy

rights amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.

and  Development  (CDD)  created  a  telephone  hot-

line  to  receive  complaints  from  citizens  of  human

The struggle for access to information during

rights  abuses.18  In  2021,  civil  society  organisations

COVID-19 in Mozambique

launched the Mozambican Network of Human Rights

The  Mozambican  government  declared  a  COV-

Defenders (RMDDH),19 a network that was created to

ID-19-related state of emergency in late March 2020,

protect activists and report cases of human rights vi-

instituting  restrictions  on  assembly  and  movement

olations in Mozambique.20 The RMDDH is composed

– but since September 2020, the country has been

of  various  civil  society  organisations  and  works  to

under a “state of public calamity”. Although some-

protect human rights defenders. Since its creation,

times  similar  to  a  state  of  emergency,  a  state  of

the network has published several public notes de-

public calamity is decreed by the government in the

nouncing cases of human rights violations.

face of a catastrophe or disaster that results in great

damage and losses.13 It is important to note that the

decree  that  instituted  a  state  of  emergency  barred

the  media  from  transmitting  COVID-19  information

14  Tsandzana, D. (2021, 19 January). In Mozambique, a tug of war

that  is  “contrary  to  official  information”,  which  al-

between public health and digital rights during the pandemic.

lows  for  the  arbitrarily  restriction  of  journalistic

Global Voices. https://globalvoices.org/2021/01/19/in-

information and the state’s interference in editorial

mozambique-a-tug-of-war-between-public-health-and-digital-

rights-during-the-pandemic (accessed 7 November 2021).

15  https://www.rsm.global/mozambique/sites/default/files/br_87_i_

serie_suplemento_2020.pdf.

16  Tsandzana, D. (2021, 19 January). Op. cit.

9  Lusa. (2022, 10 February). New media law in Mozambique “is

17  Massarongo-Jona, O. (2021). A pandemia da COVID-19 no espaço

terrible” for journalists’ – NGO.  Club of Mozambique. https://

da Lusofonia: a visão de direitos humanos no direito moçambicano.

clubofmozambique.com/news/new-media-law-in-mozambique-is-

Cadernos Ibero-Americanos de Direito Sanitário,  10(2), 258-266.

terrible-for-journalists-ngo-209305/

https://doi.org/10.17566/ciads.v10i2.764

10  MSF. (2021, 16 April). Fear and loss for people fleeing

18  Matias, L. (2020, 5 May). Covid-19: Cidadãos moçambicanos

violence in Cabo Delgado. https://www.msf.org/

denunciam abusos da polícia.  DW. https://www.dw.com/pt-002/

people-lose-family-livelihoods-cabo-delgado-mozambique

covid-19-cidad%C3%A3os-mo%C3%A7ambicanos-denunciam-

11  Pereira, C., & Forquilha, S. (2020). Op. cit.

abusos-da-pol%C3%ADcia/a-53343318

12  https://freedomhouse.org/country/mozambique/

19  Júnior, A. (2020, 6 October). Ativistas moçambicanos lançam

freedom-world/2021

Rede Nacional de Defesa dos Direitos Humanos.  VOA. https://

13  Daniel, G. (2020, 17 September). Estado de Emergência

www.voaportugues.com/a/ativistas-mo%C3%A7ambicanos-

e de Calamidade Pública.  GDA Advogados. https://

lan%C3%A7am-rede-nacional-de-defesa-dos-direitos-

www.gdaadvogados.com/pt/publicacoes/insights/

humanos/5611072.html

estado-de-emergencia-e-de-calamidade-publica/210

20  https://redemoz-defensoresdireitoshumanos.org

170  /  Global Information Society Watch

Despite  the  low  level  of  access  to  digital  plat-

but have also affected ordinary citizens. On 16 Feb-

forms,  some  local  organisations  have  used  the

ruary  2021,  Mozambique’s  President  Filipe  Nyusi

internet to promote human rights in times of crisis,

pardoned  two  individuals  who  had  appeared  in  a

such as Txeka, a digital platform for promoting the

video  insulting  him,  after  the  case  became  widely

political participation of young people, particularly

discussed  in  the  country.23  In  the  video,  two  men

women.21 Its Facebook page, which is the main tool

who were stuck in a traffic jam in Maputo minutes

for  its  activism,  is  followed  by  more  than  29,000

before  the  start  of  the  curfew  –  which  was  put  in

users.

place in the Mozambican capital on 4 February 2021

Since the beginning of the pandemic, Txeka has

– complain about the restrictive measures linked to

been working to remedy cases of violence through

the COVID-19 pandemic. Using insults, the two criti-

online campaigns on its social media platforms. Its

cise the curfew given the chaotic traffic situation and

particular  focus  has  been  gender-based  violence,

place the blame on the president.

and it has been publishing a minimum of four posts

The  video  went  viral  on  social  media  and  was

daily  about  legal  provisions  for  the  protection  of

even  broadcast  by  the  STV  television  channel.

women and girls, both online and offline, on its Face-

Subsequently,  the  National  Criminal  Investigation

book feed.

Service  opened  an  investigation  against  the  two

This initiative also addresses online violence, re-

men for the crime of slander,24 leading to the arrest

porting on cases that have occurred in the last years

of  one  of  them.  Three  days  later,  according  to  the

in Mozambique. Many of its activities are promoted

outlet  Folha de Maputo,25 the man was released af-

through  the  use  of  videos  and  illustrative  anima-

ter a judge accepted a request from the Mozambican

tions. The example of Txeka represents the new face

Bar Association arguing that the crime of slander re-

of  a  struggle,  where  the  use  of  digital  platforms

quires a complaint filed by the offended party, which

becomes  an  opportunity  to  promote  human  rights

in this case would be the Mozambican president.26

alongside digital rights in Mozambique.

COVID-19  has  led  Mozambican  other  civil

Conclusion

society  organisations  to  reinvent  themselves,  par-

The  COVID-19  pandemic  shifted  attention  and  civic

ticularly those linked to the defence of press freedom

energy to the national public health emergency.27 As

or safeguarding justice, which, in the context of the

a result, civic action, which was marked by the emer-

pandemic, means monitoring cases of violations of

gence of new actors and new coalitions, appears to

individual and collective freedoms.

have  focused  on  issues  such  as  health  and  emer-

However,  the  government  control  over  civic

gency aid, considering their relevance to controlling

space continues to be one of the greatest obstacles

the spread and effects of the virus, rather than the

to civil society activism. There are also geographical

issues  of  daily  life  that  have  been  affected  by  the

variations  regarding  the  closure  of  civic  space,  in

government’s  responses  to  the  pandemic,  such  as

the sense that the further away from the country’s

gender-based  violence,  livelihood  challenges,  ed-

capital  and  urban  centres  one  is,  the  more  closed

ucation,  and  law  and  order.  Nevertheless,  some

the space becomes and, because of that, the more

organisations  have  managed  to  build  campaigns

difficult to navigate it is. Civil society organisations

and projects in these spaces, some turning to inter-

based in the outlying provinces are unable to explore

net platforms to support their advocacy.

the possibilities afforded by the legal framework in

In  general,  most  civil  society  organisations  in

the same way as those organisations based in Ma-

Mozambique  operate  without  significant  legal  re-

puto.22 Although they do use internet platforms for

strictions.  However,  rights  defenders  and  members

activism, this use is relatively infrequent compared

to organisations based in Maputo. In part this is due

to the limited financial, material and human resourc-

23  Tsandzana, D. (2021, 22 February). Mozambique’s President

es  available  to  civil  society  at  the  provincial  level.

pardons young men who insulted him in viral video.  Global Voices.

https://globalvoices.org/2021/02/22/mozambiques-president-

Personal experience also suggests that internet ac-

pardons-young-men-who-insulted-him-in-viral-video

cess in terms of access speeds and infrastructure is

24  Jornal Notícias. (2021, 12 February). Jovem detido por injuriar

worse in the provinces compared to the capital.

PR. https://www.jornalnoticias.co.mz/capital/maputo/

jovem-detido-por-injuriar-pr

It should be pointed out that cases of state in-

25  Folha de Maputo. (2021, 17 February). PR perdoa jovens

timidation with negative consequences for freedom

que o ofenderam num vídeo nas redes sociais. https://

of expression have not been confined to the media,

www.folhademaputo.co.mz/pt/noticias/nacional/

pr-perdoa-jovens-que-o-ofenderam-num-video-nas-redes-sociais

26  Tsandzana, D. (2021, 22 February). Op cit.

27  Anderson, C., et al. (2021).  Navigating Civic Space in a Time of

21  https://www.facebook.com/TxekaMoz

Covid: Synthesis Report. Institute of Development Studies. https://

22  Pereira, C., & Forquilha, S. (2020). Op cit.

opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/16602

MOZAMBIQUE / 171

of  groups  perceived  as  critical  of  the  government

•  Similarly,  there  is  a  need  to  establish  a  broad

continue  to  report  acts  of  intimidation.  This  intimi-

network  involving  other  civil  society  organisa-

dation appears to have increased at the start of the

tions  that  are  experienced  in  promoting  digital

pandemic, when the government used its legislative

rights,  to  encourage  friendship  and  solidarity

powers  under  the  state  of  emergency  and  state  of

between organisations.

public calamity, which is still in effect at the time of

•  Civil society organisations should invest in dig-

writing. While this suggests that civic space for activ-

ital  security,  so  that  their  activities  are  carried

ism is shrinking in the country, a trend not helped by

out in a protected environment, including where

the ongoing war in the northeast of Mozambique, it

their privacy and data are protected.

also needs to be remembered that civil society partic-

ipation and civil dynamics have always been relatively

limited, mainly due to the restrictions imposed by au-

thoritarian  practices,  low  internet  connectivity  and

media centralisation by the public entities.

Action steps

In  this  context,  the  following  action  steps  are

recommended:

•  There  is  a  need  to  encourage  collective  activ-

ism  among  civil  society  organisations  working

for  human  rights  broadly  in  Mozambique.  This

will  enable  unity  of  effort  and  better  long-term

results. One way to do this is to strengthen the

Mozambican Network of Human Rights Defend-

ers (RMDDH), allowing it to expand its network,

by  organising  initiatives  beyond  its  local  net-

works, so more people are likely to benefit from

its activities.

172  /  Global Information Society Watch

NEPAL

GOING ONLINE DURING THE PANDEMIC: LESSONS AND REFLECTIONS

are,  at  the  same  time,  a  pre-condition  for  advocacy

Body & Data and APC

hvale vale and the Body & Data team: Rita Baramu, Kabita

and, somehow, an advocacy issue in themselves.

Rai, Youba Rai, Shubha Kayastha, Neha Gauchan, Sapana

Digital  rights  advocacy  includes  advocating

Sanjeevani, Shripa Pradhan, Anuska Sthapit, Mahima

for  accessible,  meaningful,  affordable  and  open

Pradhan, Prasun Subedi, Pramila Shrestha and SJ

infrastructures,  which  entails  the  intersection  of

https://bodyanddata.org

hardware,  software,  knowledge  and  relationships.

The “how” and the “what” conflate.

Traditionally,  people  marched  and  occupied

Body & Data, a sexual and gender rights organisa-

squares, reclaiming access to physical decision-making

tion based in Nepal, had a conversation with APC’s

rooms. In the digital era of strategic fragmentation and

hvale vale to reflect on how the COVID-19 pandemic

algorithm-managed  realities,  our  advocacy  is  equally

changed or shaped the ways in which they do their

about  and  is  equally  happening  through  and  via  the

advocacy work around digital technology-related is-

very same spaces whose politics impact, threaten and

sues. The conversation was held on BigBlueButton,

frame the digital or internet rights we advocate for.

recorded and transcribed.

In this scenario, meaningful access to platforms

becomes advocacy. The question is how to use the

Introduction

online and now hybrid spaces not as episodic bridg-

es  to  stay  connected,  but  as  integral,  continuous,

It takes time to learn and it takes more time to struc-

permanent spaces where advocacy can thrive.

ture  learning,  transforming  fragments  of  individual

It is important to look at and name how organi-

and  collective  experience  into  something  that  can

sations, collectives and activists have moved or can

resemble a practice, a change in behaviour. For activ-

move from the emergency of the moment to a stra-

ists and civil society actors, this means a “change” in

tegic use and understanding of commercial as well

the “how” we go about advocacy and the “what” we

as autonomous infrastructure that can enable their

advocate for.

advocacy, and that they can advocate for .

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic we followed

This  report  captures  some  of  the  experiences  of

our intuition, trusted our relationships and moved from

Body  &  Data,  a  Nepali-based  organisation,  and  their

traditional in-person office work and in-person confer-

trajectory  as  a  feminist  digital  rights  organisation.  It

ences to virtual rooms, webinars and massive online

tries to capture not only the changes that the organisa-

conferences, where we learned to become embodied

tion made, but how their new digital spaces influenced

avatars of our social justice feminist causes.

and intertwined with what they advocated for.

Over two and a half years after that change that

was imposed on us, it is important to reflect on what

The story

remains beyond our immediate, reactive responses

to stay connected. We need to explore if and how our

A  couple  of  days  after  we  started  working  virtually,  I

responses have evolved, evaporated or stayed with

was thinking like, “What do I use at home?”, because

us, and if they have become an integral part of the

I have this table in my room that is like ages old, from

work we do and of the way we do it.

when we used those desktop computers, a computer

Advocacy  and  advocates  lived  in  a  distributed,

bought  in  my  college  days,  right,  and  it’s  not  real-

ly comfortable and I used one of my dining chairs to

precarious dependency during the pandemic, medi-

work. I’m glad I had that table in my room, that I didn’t

ated by digital technologies. Going online meant that

have to go rushing, buying things to start with.

advocacy could be augmented, discarded, attacked

Shubha, Body and Data team member

or criminalised through the very digital technologies

that mediate their interactions.

Grounded  and  locked  into  our  own  local  realities,

And since technology is never neutral, and all new

homes  and  rooms.  Separated  by  one  another,  local

and less new virtual spaces and platforms are owned

and  global  collectives  and  organisations  had  to  step

and intrinsically intertwined with the politics and po-

up  or  reinvent  ways  of  strengthening  and  support-

sitionality of their owners and maintainers, platforms

ing collective and individual memory, re-creating and

NEPAL / 173

sustaining a shared sense of mission, imagining daily

Closer than ever: What was it and how

online working practices as tactile and embodied. With

did it work?

online experiences being as diverse, fragile and precar-

APC’s “Closer than ever”1 statement was [...] warm and

ious as the many locations and positionalities of the

at the same time [was] giving lots of hope. We really

advocates, this was not easy or possible for everyone.

felt okay. It was, is, really closer than ever in multiple

Advocacy  counted  on  bodies  and  physical  spac-

senses,  and  I  think  that  was  something  to  really  re-

es!  Intervention  in  local  or  global  venues,  press

member and carry on in our further activities as well.

conferences, workshops. The material distribution of

Kabita, Body & Data team member

printed text and posters. One or many of these would

offer  unavoidable  intersections,  opportunities  to

APC’s “Closer than ever” approach supported Body

share evidence and build alliances. All of this froze!

&  Data.  During  weekly  meet-ups,  several  aspects

The hidden costs of being online for work with a

of working from a distance were discussed, such as

strong, reliable and stable connection or with access

so-called “productivity” and internal communication

to tools that would guarantee one’s privacy and safe-

tools, but also care, digital fatigue, and so on. The

ty  became  visible,  and  issues  of  affordability  and

weekly  “calls  and  guidance”  helped  the  organisa-

meaningful connectivity became evident, contribut-

tion “through the transitioning process, to move the

ing to the sense of precariousness and dependency:

work virtually.” As they put it, “[t]he team felt sup-

ported and held during the difficult time.”2

Technology  was  really  helpful  because  during  lock-

Besides this, the Body & Data team invested in

down it was the only thing on which I relied to talk to

and engaged in multiple sessions on media manage-

other  people,  friends,  colleagues  and  family.  At  the

ment  and  organisational  technical  infrastructures,

same time there were issues [...] the electricity was up

enhancing their skills on managing their own infra-

and down, on and off – it would be really difficult when

the  meeting  was  happening  and  the  electricity  goes

structure in order to be independent:

down. […] And it was not only electricity. I used Wi-Fi

I  remember  our  first  storytelling  workshop  online,  we

from my mobile network and it was expensive and it

were  really  scared  and  nervous  as  to  how  to  create  a

impacted our work and advocacy quite directly.

safe space while being apart physically. We were able

Rita, Body & Data team member

to use our Nextcloud space for the participants to send

their works, share their ideas and work amongst them-

It  was  a  sudden  realisation  for  many  that  all  inter-

selves. Personally, for me, that was one of the moments

actions  would  have  to  be  mediated  by  technology.

that truly hold the essence of how closer we are virtually.

The longer the time, the higher the alienation – and

Shripa, Body & Data team member

the realisation that technology was as necessary as

Humans adapt and change. Building these new on-

water, air, land, food.

line collective selves was an act of hope, trust and

As a feminist digital rights organisation, Body &

hard  work.  Their  happening  and  fluidity  informed

Data already had a wealth of experience to draw on

both  the  issues  being  advocated  for,  and  the  way

in this area. Meaningful access, the right to associ-

of  working,  giving  digital  rights  advocacy  access

ation online, the internet as public good, were and

to both familiar and new, larger audiences, and in-

are part of their digital rights advocacy agenda. But

vesting these interactions with nuances born by the

where they found themselves was in a no-humans-

everyday use and experience of technology that they

land, entrapped inside and by the machine; and they

did not have access or proximity to before.

knew  that  if  they  wanted  to  thrive,  they  could  not

rely on what they knew or solely on what was availa-

There were lots of changes and uncertainty whether to go

ble – they had to create their own alternatives:

with our already set plan. […] Thinking through the plan

again, redesigning things. So if we were planning some-

One of the main concerns we had around our activities

thing  we  were  paying  attention  to  what  would  be  the

was creating a safe space, making people comfortable

different aspects in the now, and that was really like helpful

coming to us, that was our concern. […] When we start-

to our work. […] A lot of the work did not stop somewhere

ed we had multiple calls and suggestions from many

[...]. It was tampered with, obviously, but there was some-

people […] that helped us through, and now we have

thing different – we would see [new things] as possibility.

this alternative that we can always go to.

Kabita, Body & Data team member

Kabita, Body and Data team member

1   APC. (2020).  Closer than ever: Keeping our movements connected

Paradoxes  cannot  be  solved;  once  acknowledged

and inclusive – The Association for Progressive Communications’

it takes a leap in the void, an act of magic to move

response to the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.apc.org/en/

through them and beyond them.

pubs/closer-ever-keeping-our-movements-connected-and-inclusive-

association-progressive

2   Expanding the EROTICS Network in South Asia: Body & Data final

narrative report.

174  /  Global Information Society Watch

But, as Kabita and Neha explain, they were not used

We  had  made  decisions  about  which  communication

to working remotely, so they took this on as a collec-

channels  to  use  for  what  specific  purposes.  We  set

tive responsibility. Some of the change that occurred

up  a  tech  infrastructure  guideline  –  that  guided  new

during 2020 became a kind of established new real-

team members as well as old team members on how

to effectively use the tech resources. All of these small

ity as a second lockdown was introduced in Nepal.

examples  helped  us  navigate  the  pandemic  and  also

The Body & Data team and their new team member

strengthen our internal communications.

could use the infrastructures as well as the policies

Shripa, Body & Data team member

built as a response to the first emergency:

We really did lots of communications looking for mutual

Today they work seamlessly in person and remotely

understanding of the things like checking in or planning

using a mash-up of tools and platforms. Some they

for any activities, and really giving more time and en-

own,  such  as  their  Nextcloud  repository  and  web-

ergy  and  attention. That  was  very  much  an  important

site, which they manage independently; some they

thing we did. [...] We built guidelines to work from home

routinely  access  and  use  because  of  their  partner

or working from distance and on what you’re working

too.  [...]  The  process  was  collective  and  most  of  the

and  membership  relationship  with  APC;  and  some

activities we do in this and that policy are things we for-

are commercial services they are subscribed to:

malised which guides our whole work. […] All of that was

At the beginning as a team we used to talk on Signal

based on our day-to-day experience. So when we had to

[…] When we started using Mattermost then I realised

go back again to virtual work […] we had something we

oh, it’s so much easier to talk over Mattermost because

could use so it was an easier transition.

you have so many channels. […] That was one of the

Kabita, Body & Data team member

shifts that we had, […] APC providing us Mattermost,

for free on the APC server. It’s a support we still feel.

Body & Data’s relationship with technology deepened

Shubha, Body & Data team member

and became more complex. As an organisation they

used technological tools and platforms such as email,

Using  commercial  services  was  quite  different.  Ac-

a website and social media accounts as part of their

cessing Zoom required international bank cards and

standard  communication.  They  already  had  specific

Nepal did not allow this until very recently. So Body

advocacy and capacity practices with their core com-

& Data had to create their own system for sending

munities  such  as  digital  storytelling.  But  what  they

money outside the country. A friend living abroad in

developed  and  where  they  landed  in  their  use  and

India would purchase and pay for the Body & Data

advocacy is described as more cohesive and complex:

Zoom account, and then get reimbursed via her Ne-

Working  with  the  organisation’s  tech  infrastructure

pali bank account.

while not being a techy, was a fascinating and reward-

However,  by  using  this  mixed  infrastructure,

ing  experience.  It  could  have  been  a  daunting  task,

drawing on what was available, and what could be

but  with  support  from  other  feminist  techies  as  well

relied on, a safe space for interactions was created,

as  the  values  that  guide  us  on  what  kind  of  tech  we

as Sapana, a new team member, explains:

want  to  use  (open  source,  encrypted  and  safe),  the

journey become more exploratory. It opened new ho-

When I started at Body & Data […] I joined the office

rizons for how tech can be used for advocacy for us as

physically for 20 days or something and then the sec-

an organisation.

ond lockdown happened and it was really the first time

I  was  working  virtually  using  official  spaces,  such  as

One of the important steps in advocacy is how we com-

Mattermost  or  Nextcloud.  [...]  The  space  was  not  in-

municate with each other within the team; that was a

timidating  at  all,  and  was  really  reassuring  that  the

highlight as well as a challenge during remote work-

communication within this channel had lesser risk or

ing.  During  the  first  two  years  of  the  pandemic,  we

no risk of like my information, whatever I share, would

got to manage and have more autonomy over our own

get  like  leaked  or  something.  […] That  safer  environ-

server space, bringing applications and resources that

ment and safer space helped me. […] If you would tell

were useful to us – Nextcloud, Riseup, calendars, etc.;

me  one  year  or  one  and  a  half  years  before  that  like

finding collaborative spaces, as well      as strategies so

official work is possible, like all of it through a virtual

that we weren’t left alone in our boxes of the screen.

space, I would not have believed you. And I would not

We  set  up  weekly  meetings  through  Zoom  or  Jitsi  to

have participated, most likely.

have space for check-ins with each other because we

Sapana, Body & Data team member

missed informal conversations during lunch hours. The

spirit of check-ins during meetings still stays with us.

Sapana knows that doing work in a physical space

Collaborative working spaces like Riseup, or etherpads

brings another joy. A joy that during 2022 and 2021

that  were  used  for  minutes,  showed  how  online  col-

laboration works beyond Google services. We are still

was missed. Still she recognised that working online,

exploring  how  to  integrate  collaborative  open  source

though  different,  does  not  necessary  diminish  the

software with our servers.

quality of interaction, but that this also depended on

NEPAL / 175

the Body & Data team actively using the technology

By producing different advocacy outputs online, the

to create a meaningful and supportive space online:

work of doing advocacy had to change too:

It  gives  us  space  to  be,  unlike  my  previous  working

The things we started producing, such as organisational

spaces, vulnerable, and to accept that is okay; if I’m not

statements regarding incidents that were happening and

getting this thing, ask for help and there is always some-

were very problematic, were important to raise voices. We

one to listen to you and address it as much as possible.

started that and we are continuing doing it. [It was] be-

Sapana, Body & Data team member

cause of the particular situations that we got introduced

to those issues, those problems and needs, and we had

Advocacy: The “how” and the “what”

to keep our eyes on them. […] I think we were considering

Body & Data is a “digital rights organisation focused

the situation and […] how things like misinformation were

on creating a free, open and just internet that respects

happening. That was not only giving us issues to consid-

er in our work, but also the way we work.

autonomy of individuals and upholds their dignity.”3

Under the umbrella of public health, the Nepali

Kabita, Body & Data team member

government,  like  many  others,  introduced  contact

tracing  systems  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  virus

However, they also found that even offline, when the

by tracking potential virus carriers. However, it not

first lockdown ended, their way of thinking about or-

only raised many issues around privacy, consent and

ganising advocacy had changed:

security, but compromised and threatened the psy-

When we were planning for even small gatherings, [ap-

cho-social security of people.

proaching] people we wanted to work with or planning

Personal information like passport numbers and

for our activities, any campaign, or any workshop, any

phone numbers were shared online, resulting in hate

webinars,  we  were  thinking  on  the  nuances;  for  ex-

speech,  death  threats  and  social  exclusion  as  well

ample, how the masks will be integrated, how that’s

gonna impact in a different way. That was I think given

as  psychological  harm  against  people  that  tested

more attention and time.

positive.  People  that  were  particularly  discriminat-

Kabita, Body & Data team member

ed  against,  such  as  foreign  workers,  migrants  and

people of certain castes or religions (like Muslims),

The Body & Data team feel that participating online

found themselves without protection or recourse to

in  national  and  international  events  was  important

justice  because  the  government  did  not  anticipate

and  helped  broaden  their  knowledge.  It  helped  to

and understand the implications of their decisions,

“accelerate  advocacy  as  well  as  contributed  to  de-

and had no mechanisms to address these issues:

veloping  strategies  for  further  activities  in  a  more

We  started  monitoring  media,  documenting  digital

effective  way.  It  [was]  also  very  important  to  occu-

rights  issues  relating  to  privacy,  violence,  digital  ID,

py spaces, intervene and increase visibility.”5 Body

freedom  of  expression,  and  we  started  internet  free-

dom conversations in our native speech. We did that

&  data  occupied  different  platforms,  expanding

event monthly. [...] That was also new. While working

their advocacy and focusing on the emerging inter-

virtually we explored those advocacies.4

sections  between  digital  rights,  internet  freedom

Neha, Body & Data team member

and  the  impact  of  COVID-19  on  the  rights  of  mar-

ginalised people in Nepal. While they were already

As a response to the problem of misinformation, for

advocating against the stigmatisation of women and

example, Body & Data organised a campaign around

marginalised  groups  such  as  Muslims,  Dalits,  etc.,

online  gender-based  violence  and  misinformation,

they  expanded  their  outreach  and  understanding

reaching 150 people through its webinars.

from  “everyday  sexism,  Islamophobia,  classicism,

As the team suggests, even simple changes to their

casteism” to misinformation online:

online advocacy approach had an important effect:

Beyond the tech infrastructure work, looking at remote

I felt that going into virtual space gave more; like we

working,  my  definition  of  what  working  and  advocacy

kind of explored new interventions of advocacy. Before

could look like has broadened. It has made me question

we were doing social media and posting [to support]

how  things  were  running  and  how  things  are  running

our campaign. We would post like videos; but then in

and who we are excluding in the work. The remote work-

2021 we started having a newsletter [...] that was also

ing environment has been advocated by the disability

a way of our advocacy.

community for years. Going to specific places for advo-

Neha, Body & Data team member

cacy and activism has implicit privileges – who has the

access to go to these places for advocating their issues.

3   Expanding the EROTICS network in South Asia: Body and Data final

narrative report.

4  Body & Data team members engaged in the Boju Bojai podcast

about feminist internet, privacy and freedom of expression, the

5   Expanding the EROTICS network in South Asia: Body and Data final

queer movement, language and visibility in the Nepalese context.

narrative report.

176  /  Global Information Society Watch

There were limitations of working virtually – missing the

Action steps

hugs, the subtle glances and understanding nods, the

non-verbal ways of affection, etc.

What can we learn from the Body & Data experience

during COVID-19?

But it also opened new horizons into how to do things

– to be more open and say what one feels. It brought a

•  Tech infrastructure is not a luxury. Funders need

new language for care – emojis, personal DMs remind-

to provide civil society organisations, collectives

ing to drink water, lurking behind with specific people

and activists with unrestricted funds to build and

after the meeting so we could just talk about how our

maintain their own autonomous infrastructure.

day  went,  setting  deadlines  for  decisions  and  feed-

backs [in a way that] we don’t misinterpret them as not

•  Working  only  online  produces  new  approaches

taking time caring, and being able to experiment with

to  advocacy,  and  can  result  in  discovering  new

tech, while not being a techy.

areas  of  advocacy  that  need  attention  –  the

Shripa, Body & Data team member

“how” can influence the “what”.

•  Working online only increases the ability for civil

But  as  many  organisations  across  the  world  have

society  activists  to  participate,  and  introduces

found,  online  advocacy  has  both  its  limits  and  its

them to new spaces, even if the value of some of

possibilities:

these spaces can be uncertain.

I  guess  one  of  the  things  we  were  not  able  to  do  af-

•  It  is  critical  to  create  safe  spaces  for  interac-

ter the COVID was travel across the country and also

tion online, which can be achieved using mixed

internationally.  That  affected  our  capacity  as  a  team

commercial  and  open-source  infrastructures  if

because otherwise members of the team would have

necessary.

gotten  the  opportunity  to  travel,  be  in  international

spaces where they would meet other activists, and feel

•  Working  online  only  produces  its  own  kind  of

like  okay,  we’re  not  alone  in  this.  So  I  guess  that  is

existential exhaustion – there is a need to rein-

something that was missed out.

vigorate ourselves through human contact.

In  terms  of  the  digital  rights  spaces,  like  RightsCon

•  There is a need to continue using and engaging

and APrIGF [Asia Pacific Regional Internet Governance

with online and in-person advocacy spaces and

Forum] and stuff like that, I don’t think it would be pos-

strategies.  The  benefits  of  one  does  not  mean

sible for us to join if it was not for virtual. [There would]

the benefits of the other cannot be realised.

either be travel funding or a visa issue, or one or the oth-

er. But that space got opened up. [...] It used to be one

•  Reach the ones who are not connected through

person from Body & Data [who could attend] but now,

internet using creative means and strategies.

you know, all of us could go. It is advocacy spaces, but it

•  Remember to celebrate and adapt to thrive in dif-

is not exactly advocacy spaces, but yeah, it opened up.

ficult times, and to nurture collective memories.

The  funny  thing  is  we  started  getting  invitations  to

speak  in  platforms  where  it’s  mostly  like,  you  know,

I am grateful for the possibility of this conversation.

men – not even digital rights, basically IT-related men

It not only created a space for a collective reflection,

working – and it was kind of interesting. We got invi-

it  also  became  a  nurturing  memory,  a  place  of  the

tations to speak in a couple of things, but I always felt

heart to go to when things return and become diffi-

out of space whenever I was in those forums, because

cult again – a collective yet personal resource of how

I could not feel if people were listening. [It was as if ]

we can adapt, thrive and weave our actions and ad-

they just did events to do events.

vocacy with our emerging realities.

Shubha, Body & Data team member

Being online all the time produced a kind of existen-

tial exhaustion, and, after two years, a new energy

was needed:

Because  during  the  lockdown  phase  everything  was

online, people realised that online events are really im-

portant and online advocacy was important at the time;

but it is not the same sentiment right now, because they

just want to go to the normal, physical spaces.

We are tired of our online presence. We also want to go

to the physical spaces and have that interaction with

people.  Still  I  think  both  online  and  physical  spaces

advocacies  are  going  on.  We  are  trying  to  do  mixed

advocacy here.

Rita, Body & Data team member

NEPAL / 177

NIGERIA

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 AND SOCIAL MEDIA RESTRICTIONS

ON CITIZEN ENGAGEMENT IN NIGERIA

Legislation targeting social media is not new in

African Centre for Climate Actions and Rural

Development (ACCARD)

Nigeria. Calls to regulate it intensified after the 2015

Freeman Elohor Oluowo

general election due to the influence that digital me-

www.accard.org

dia platforms had in the process, with many of these

efforts spearheaded by the Buhari-led federal gov-

ernment, which came into power.

Introduction

In November 2015, Deputy Senate Leader Ibn Na’

During  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  civil  society  and

Allah sponsored the Frivolous Petition Bill 2015, oth-

human  right  organisations  exposed  government

erwise known as the “anti-social media bill”, which

corruption, including financial misappropriation and

was referred to the Senate Committee on Judiciary,

the hoarding of food intended for aid, as well as hu-

Human Rights and Legal Matters for further recom-

man right abuses in Nigeria. This led to the so-called

mendations.2 Also, in March 2018, the then deputy

#EndSARS protests in 2020, a ban on Twitter for sev-

chief whip of the Senate, Abdullahi Aliu Sabi, intro-

en months, and a brutal clampdown on protestors by

duced a bill seeking the prohibition of hate speech

the security establishment.

in  the  country. The  bill  was  withdrawn  by  the  law-

While  the  government’s  relentless  efforts  to

makers due to a backlash from Nigerians and rights

clamp  down  on  social  media  have  narrowed  the

watchdogs  outside  of  the  country.  However,  it  was

space for civil society engagement, it is also likely to

re-introduced by the Senate in November 2019.

contribute to increasing human rights violations and

The hate speech bill proposed a jail term of no

corruption in Nigeria. At the same time, the increase

less than five years or a fine of no less than less than

in  youth  unemployment,  blamed  on  the  COVID-19

NGN 10 million (USD 24,000), or both, for offences

pandemic and consequent economic lockdown and

like harassment on the basis of ethnicity and race.3

restrictions, does not properly take into account the

The government, in a more desperate move, es-

economic  implications  of  the  government’s  repres-

tablished a national commission for the prohibition

sion and censoring of social media.

of hate speech and gave legislative power to the Na-

In  the  context  of  the  #EndSARS  protests,  this

tional  Broadcasting  Commission  (NBC)  to  regulate

report  discusses  the  efforts  by  the  government  to

social media platforms in the country. These moves

restrict  social  media,  and  the  potential  impact  on

came with the backdrop of 16 laws already in exist-

human rights and the economy.

ence  which  enabled  the  Nigerian  state  to  acquire

citizen data and conduct surveillance operations.

Background

There is a growing use of social media among Ni-

Online platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Ins-

gerians, with many finding these platforms an easy

tagram, TikTok and YouTube provide citizens the

and cheap means of communication. Nigeria’s social

opportunity to express their concerns, spread in-

media users were estimated at 33 million in January

formation in real time as well as engage directly

2021,4 mostly young people. It is a significant num-

with  those  who  govern  them.  However,  with  re-

ber,  although  relatively  small  for  a  country  with  a

ports of social media abuses, what governments

population of over 200 million people. Nevertheless,

and  their  institutions  across  the  world  consider

any attempts by government to regulate social me-

as  efforts  aimed  at  ending  the  menace  of  mis-

dia will be viewed as a deliberate attack on young

information  and  disinformation1  are  resulting  in

people,  a  move  to  suppress  the  voices  of  young

new measures to monitor and regulate the use of

these platforms.

2  Agbedo, O. (2021, 26 June). Social media regulation: Between

failed attempts and Buhari’s current move. The Guardian. https://

1  Santas, T., & Inobemhe, K. (2021). Social Media Regulation in a

guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/cover/social-media-regulation-

Democratic Nigeria: Challenges and Implication.  MCC, 5(1), 71-88.

between-failed-attempts-and-buharis-current-move

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353429624_Social_

3  Ibid.

Media_Regulation_in_a_Democratic_Nigeria_Challenges_and_

4  Kemp, S. (2001, 11 February). Digital 2021: Nigeria.  DataReportal.

Implication

https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-nigeria

178  /  Global Information Society Watch

people – and possibly to cover up the maladminis-

The  federal  government,  announcing  the  Twit-

tration and corruption in the government.

ter  ban  through  Information  Minister  Alhaji  Lai

This  is  disturbing  for  a  country  with  an  unem-

Mohammed,  said  the  use  of  Twitter  was  “capable

ployment  rate  which  stood  at  33.3%  in  the  fourth

of  undermining  the  corporate  existence  of  Nige-

quarter of 20205 – and could be worse in the future, if

ria.” While this was a direct result of the perceived

nothing is done to address current youth unemploy-

role  of  Twitter  in  the  #EndSARS  protests,  and  the

ment. According to the National Bureau of Statistics,

consequent  destruction  and  looting  of  government

the unemployed figure represents a labour force of

property,  Twitter  had  also  deleted  a  post  on  the

about  23,187,389  persons  in  Nigeria,  either  doing

protests  by  President  Mohammadu  Buhari,  where

nothing  or  working  for  less  than  20  hours  a  week.

he referred to Nigeria’s civil war between 1967 and

The age group categories with the highest rates of

1970,  saying  that  most  of  those  “misbehaving”  by

unemployment were persons between the ages of 15

burning  electoral  offices  and  police  stations  were

and 24 (53.4%) and 25 and 34 (37%).6

too  young  to  understand  the  gravity  of  war,  and

threatening to deal with arsonists and looters in “the

Twitter ban during the 2020 #EndSARS protest

language they understand.”8

Many  countries,  including  Nigeria,  are  seen  to  in-

Consequently,  the  NBC  implemented  the  pres-

fringe on the fundamental and constitutional rights

ident’s  orders,  and  directed  all  network  providers

of their citizens to access information and to freedom

to block access to Twitter services in the country. It

of expression and association. They use legislation,

further instructed all social media platforms and on-

policies and programmes aimed at limiting citizens’

line broadcasting services to register and obtain an

access  to  valuable  information  and  their  participa-

operational licence, or face sanctions.

tion in democratic processes.

Although some users bypassed internet service

The  Nigerian  government’s  recent  attempts  to

providers in the country by using virtual private net-

regulate social media were framed as an attempt to

works (VPNs) to access Twitter for the seven months

push back against fake news. However, in a dramat-

of the ban, the decision sparked an outcry and many

ic  manner,  on  4  June  2021,  Nigeria  banned Twitter,

public debates. While some argued in support of the

joining  countries  like  China,  Iran,  North  Korea  and

government ban, many accused it of a knee-jerk re-

Turkmenistan  where  social  media  have  been  sus-

action to Twitter deleting the president’s post, which

pended or banned outright.

according  to  Twitter  violated  its  global  community

The  Twitter  ban  happened  during  the  so-called

policies. However – and not far from the truth – the

#EndSARS  protests  –  when  social  media  platforms,

ban was also seen as one way for the government to

especially Twitter,  were  used  by  the  youth  to  call  for

vent its anger at young people, and the accusations

the  disbanding  of  the  Nigerian  Police  Force  Special

levelled against it.

Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), which had been accused

in the past of extortion, harassment, brutality, killings

Impact of the Twitter ban on the Nigerian

and  other  abuses,  including  rape.  Young  people  had

economy

expressed their frustration during the COVID-19 lock-

Communication  technology  is  responsible  for  an

down  measures  and  stay-at-home  orders,  as  well  as

estimated 10% of Nigeria’s gross domestic product

their  dissatisfaction  with  the  political  handling  and

(GDP).9  The  online  benefits  for  an  economy  where

hoarding by politicians of goods, especially food items,

an  estimated  33  million  people  use  social  media,

that were meant to be distributed to cushion the effect

including business owners for direct advertising or

of the pandemic on citizens. Attempts by the youth to

engaging their clients and customers, cannot be un-

break  into  warehouses  across  the  country  in  search

derestimated or politicised.

of the hoarded food were blocked in some places by

After  222  days,  the  Nigerian  federal  govern-

the SARS, and arrests made. In their frustration, young

ment  lifted  the  ban  on  Twitter  operations  in  the

people  took  to  the  streets,  using  social  media  –  and

country.  NetBlocks  estimated  an  economic  loss

several hashtags7 – to organise their protests.

of  NGN  104.02  million  (USD  250,600)  every  hour,

amounting to a NGN 2.46 billion (USD 5.9 million)

5  Elebeke, E. (2021, 15 March). Nigeria’s unemployment rate rises

to 33.3%.  Vanguard. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/03/

nigerias-unemployment-rate-rises-to-33-3

6  Popoola, N., et al. (2021, 16 March). Unemployment rate hits 33.3%,

23.18million Nigerians jobless – NBS.  Punch. https://punchng.com/

8  Agbedo, O. (2021, 26 June). Op. cit.

unemployment-rate-hits-33-3-23-18million-nigerians-jobless-nbs /

9  Olojo, A., & Allen, K. (2021, 24 June). Social media and

7  These included #EndSARS, #ReformPoliceNG, #OccupyLekki,

the state: challenging the rules of engagement.  Institute

#OccupyNigeria, #OccuppyNASS, #SaveNigeriaGroup and

for Security Studies. https://issafrica.org/iss-today/

#OurMumuDonDo (“Our foolishness is enough”).

social-media-and-the-state-challenging-the-rules-of-engagement

NIGERIA / 179

daily loss.10 This is depressing and economic sab-

The Lagos panel indicted the security personnel

otage for a country with an unemployment rate of

responsible, and for trying to cover up their actions

33.3%  in  the  same  year,  affecting  mostly  young

by removing bullet cartridges from the scene.

people. The  knowledge  of  the  economic  sabotage

The  Lagos  state  government,  yet  to  implement

may  have  prompted  civil  society  organisations  in-

the  white  paper  of  the  report,  denied  inviting  the

cluding  Socio-Economic  Rights  and  Accountability

army to the Lekki Tollgate when it happened.

Project11  to  challenge  the  decision  of  the  federal

The panel received about 235 petitions connected

government in court.

to the activities of the already disbanded Nigeria Po-

lice Force Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS). These

Peaceful protestors attacked at Lekki

included extortion, harassment and the killing of cit-

Tollgate: A panel investigates

izens they were meant to protect. Of this number, 45

One of the worst incidents of police violence during

of the petitions already have judgments delivered by

the protests happened in Lekki, a coastal city in Lagos

competent courts of law in their favour, but the com-

state in the southwest of the country. On 20 October

plainants have yet to receive any compensation from

2020, young people were peacefully protesting police

the Nigerian police or federal government.

brutality in Nigeria at the Lekki Tollgate. Security forc-

es, on the invitation of the Lagos state government,

The impact of COVID-19 and social media

allegedly opened fire to disperse the protesters while

restrictions on civil society engagement

they were waving the country’s flag and singing the

Most  civil  society  organisations,  particularly  in  the

Nigerian national anthem. This resulted in many pro-

global  South  including  Nigeria,  are  struggling  to

testors sustaining injuries and reports of deaths.

stay  afloat  and  sustain  their  engagements.  In  Ni-

Footage of the sad incident trended on social me-

geria, both government censorship and restrictions

dia, particularly on Twitter, exposing serious human

on social media, and the COVID-19 outbreak, which

right violations by state actors in Nigeria. The feder-

imposed  restrictions  on  physical  gatherings  and  in

al government, by way of exonerating itself from the

turn affected funding support for non-COVID-related

global  condemnation  of  the  incident,  mandated  the

activities,  have  had  a  huge  impact  on  civil  society

governors of the 36 states in Nigeria, as well as the

activities.

Minister of the Federal Capital Territory Abuja, to set

From  the  suspension  of  Twitter  in  early  June

up an investigative panel of inquiry on reported cases

2020, to the enactment of the anti-social media bill

of police brutality across the country, with one hear-

and hate speech bill,13 to the amendment of the Ni-

ing specifically reviewing the Lekki Tollgate incident.

geria  Broadcasting  Commission  (NBC)  Act  under

Ironically,  the  panel’s  report,  which  has  since

parliamentary  consideration,  laws  have  been  for-

been  published,  was  rejected  by  the  government.

mulated  to  repress  civil  society  engagement  and

It documented several cases of police brutality, ex-

criminalise information sharing both in print media

tortion, human rights abuses and killings by military

and online.

personnel and other security agencies at the Lekki

Between 2015 and 2021 alone, the Closing Civ-

Tollgate on 20 October 2020, and the day after.

ic Spaces database documented over 300 incidents

The  panel  found  that  the  “Nigeria  Army  [which

cracking down on freedom of expression, assembly

had been invited by the Lagos State Government to

and association in Nigeria.14

intervene] shot, injured and killed unarmed helpless

Also, we surveyed over 50 civil society and hu-

and  defenseless  protesters  without  provocation  or

man rights organisations in Nigeria, in order to better

justification, while waving the Nigeria flag and sing-

understand the direct impact of COVID-19 and social

ing the National Anthem.”12

media  restrictions  on  civil  society  engagement  on

the ground. They all said the pandemic, government

censorship,  clampdowns  on  freedoms  and  social

10  Dataphyte. (2022, 15 January). Twitter ban, Tinubu’s tweeps, and

media  regulations  have  significantly  impacted  on

N500bn tantrum. https://www.dataphyte.com/latest-reports/

special-report/twitter-ban-tinubus-tweeps-and-n500bn-tantrum; their  activities.  According  to  them,  the  situation  is

Conroy-Krutz, J. (2021, 7 June). Nigeria Has Banned Twitter. Here’s

worse under the COVID-19 pandemic because their

What This Could Mean for Its Democracy and Online Activism.

Global Citizen. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/

access  to  both  local  and  international  funding  has

nigeria-twitter-ban-could-hurt-economy

become limited.

11  https://serap-nigeria.org

12  Lagos State Ministry of Justice. (2020).  Lagos State Judicial Panel

of Inquiry on Restitution for Victims of SARS Related Abuses and

13  Ibezim-Ohaeri, V., Olufemi, J., Nwodo, L, Olufemi, O., Juba-Nwosu,

Other Matters: Consolidated Report on General Police Brutality

N., & TIERS. (2021).  Security Playbook of Digital Authoritarianism

Cases. https://lagosstatemoj.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/

in Nigeria. Action Group on Free Civic Space. https://closingspaces.

Consolidated-Report-of-the-Judicial-Panel-of-Inquiry-on-general-

org/the-security-playbook-of-digital-authoritarianism-in-nigeria

Police-brutality-cases.pdf

14  https://closingspaces.org

180  /  Global Information Society Watch

They  find  the  new  measures  more  challenging,

Action steps

and  the  fear  of  arrest  or  harassment  by  security

The  following  key  actions  steps  are  necessary  in

agencies, already monitoring online posts and other

Nigeria:

activities  of  civil  society  organisations  and  human

rights  activists,  has  resulted  in  individuals  exiting

•  There  is  an  increasing  need  for  civil  society  or-

the civil engagement space.

ganisations to be able to properly verify available

information online before using the information

Conclusion

for  advocacy.  In  this  regard,  training  is  needed

The  Buhari-led  federal  government’s  unrelenting

in fact checking and other skills such as under-

efforts to regulate the use of social media and on-

standing and interpreting data.

line  platforms  in  Nigeria  will  have  both  short-  and

•  There  is  need  for  civil  society  organisations  to

long-term negative impacts on press freedom, civil

build  in-house  research  and  advocacy  capacity

society  engagement  and  citizens’  participation  in

to properly address the shutting down of online

democratic governance.

civic space through new regulations.

The  passage  of  the  anti-social  media  bill,  the

•  Civil  society  organisations  need  to  better  col-

censorship of the media and new measures in place

laborate  among  themselves  and  form  network

to regulate social media platforms, like the suspen-

organisations will help them to speak with one

sion  of  Twitter,  will  also  undoubtedly  have  huge

voice.

economic  knock-on  implications  for  a  country  with

•  They  need  to  collaborate  with  academic  and

a high unemployment rate that mostly affects young

research  institutions  to  reduce  the  cost  of  de-

people. The political, economic and financial losses

veloping  data  sets  to  conduct  evidence-based

during the Twitter ban are yet to be fully understood.

advocacy and to help sustain their engagements.

However,  the  regulations  are  likely  to  further  con-

strain  the  activities  of  civil  society  organisations

•  In  times  of  crisis,  such  as  now,  there  is  a  need

already  struggling  to  stay  afloat,  especially  under

for civil society organisations and activists to as

the  COVID-19  pandemic,  which  disrupted  global

much as possible remain balanced, objective and

funding flows. A number of people and organisations

firm  in  their  engagement  with  the  government,

are now exiting the civil society space.

to avoid giving it excuses for further restrictions

If the attack on citizens’ engagement continues

on  social  media,  and  harassment  of  activists

in  Nigeria,  citizens  may  lose  their  right  to  freedom

through legal means.

of  expression  as  outlined  in  the  1999  constitution

and  the  Open  Government  Partnership,15  to  which

the country is signatory. This will further worsen the

existing human rights abuses and violations and, im-

portantly, the activities of civil society organisations

working  to  strengthen  Nigeria’s  fragile  democratic

processes.

Like never before, civil society actors and human

right  activists  are  campaigning  against  impunity

and  bad  governance,  demanding  accountability  for

widespread injustices, while mounting pressure on

federal  and  state  authorities  to  address  issues  of

public  concerns.  Much  of  this  advocacy  is  taking

place on social media platforms.

15  https://www.opengovpartnership.org

NIGERIA / 181

PERU

HAVE THE PRIORITIES OF DIGITAL RIGHTS ORGANISATIONS

CHANGED IN PERU?

Manos  (“Peru  in  Your  Hands”),2  which  came  to  be

Independent

Carlos Guerrero Argote

criticised  for  its  lack  of  effectiveness  and  transpar-

ency in design and use of personal data.3

Then,  when  the  health  measures  implemented

in the country forced the digitalisation of in-person

Introduction

activities,  multiple  remote  control  and  surveillance

This  report  considers  the  impact  of  the  COVID-19

technologies  began  to  proliferate,  mainly  in  the

pandemic on the advocacy priorities of digital rights

workplace  and  education  environments.  In  2021,  a

organisations in Peru. First, it presents the changes

regional study was published on the impact on pri-

produced  by  the  deployment  of  different  technolo-

vacy of e-proctoring, a surveillance technology that

gies between 2020 and 2021, as well as their effects

uses  facial  recognition  and  artificial  intelligence  to

on  digital  rights.  The  report  then  analyses  how

prevent  impersonation  and  plagiarism  during  stu-

these changes affected the organisations and their

dent  evaluations. The  study  found  that  at  least  20

advocacy  agendas.  Finally,  some  conclusions  and

Peruvian  universities  had  used  e-proctoring  soft-

recommendations are proposed.

ware  and  in  at  least  one  case  a  security  breach  of

It finds that although the pandemic has strength-

personal data was identified.4

ened networks of actors working on digital rights, and

While digital rights organisations in Peru had to

virtual  work  has  increased  the  workload  and  fatigue

face the challenge of dealing with these new threats,

of  activists,  the  pandemic  does  not  appear  to  have

they also had to adapt their own internal processes

impacted  significantly  on  the  longer-term  advocacy

because of the COVID-19 outbreak. Although by the

agendas of digital rights organisations working in Peru.

time  of  writing  this  report,  all  kinds  of  reports  and

policy papers have been published on the status of

Background

digital  rights  in  the  Latin  American  region,  very  few

consider whether there have been changes in agendas

In March 2022, it will be two years since the Peruvi-

and projects taken on by digital rights organisations,

an government first declared a state of emergency,

something that could affect their advocacy plans and

a few days after the first case of COVID-19 was con-

funding priorities in the coming years.5

firmed in the country.1 Many things have happened

over these two years. Regarding digital rights, Peru

New threats, work overload, but few changes

has  seen  a  rise  in  the  widespread  use  of  different

in priorities

technologies  with  an  impact  on  privacy  and  other

human rights, promoted by both public and private

In order to learn more about their internal chang-

sector  actors.  In  many  of  these  cases,  the  impact

es,  we  conducted  semi-structured  interviews  with

has been more negative than positive and has put at

risk the people it was intended to benefit, very often

2  Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros. (2020, 3 April). Gobierno

implementa aplicativo para identificar situaciones de riesgo y

without consequences.

detener cadena de contagio por COVID19 . Gob.pe.  https://www.

It  is  possible  to  identify  some  patterns  in  the

gob.pe/institucion/pcm/noticias/111820-gobierno-implementa-

aplicativo-para-identificar-situaciones-de-riesgo-y-detener-cadena-

deployment of these technologies. Initially most of

de-contagio-por-covid19

them were focused almost exclusively on addressing

3  Morachimo, M. (2020, 8 June). Aplicación “Perú en tus manos”

problems related to the spread of COVID-19. Here we

sigue dejando más preguntas que respuestas dos meses después.

Hiperderecho. https://hiperderecho.org/2020/06/aplicacion-peru-

can point out, for example, the development of the

en-tus-manos-sigue-dejando-mas-preguntas-que-respuestas-dos-

so-called “corona apps”. In April 2020, the Presiden-

meses-despues

cy of the Council of Ministers announced the launch

4  Guerrero Argote, C. (2021).  ¿Vigilados en la escuela?: Impacto en

la privacidad a partir del uso de tecnologías de e-proctoring en la

of  a  contact-tracing  application  called   Perú  En  Tus

región de Latinoamérica. https://descargas.lacnic.net/lideres/

carlos-guerrero/carlos-guerrero-informe.pdf

5  Recently, The Engine Room, a non-profit organisation, published

1  Diario La República. (2020, 16 March). Gobierno declaró estado

Strengthening intersectional approaches to data and digital rights

de emergencia por coronavirus en Perú. https://larepublica.pe/

advocacy during the pandemic, a report that contains just such

politica/2020/03/16/coronavirus-peru-martin-vizcarra-declara-

information. See: https://www.theengineroom.org/wp-content/

estado-de-emergencia-nacional-por-30-dias

uploads/2022/01/DDR-Report-26-02-22.pdf

182  /  Global Information Society Watch

three digital rights organisations: Centro de Estudi-

the Al Sur coalition14 also focused on the surveillance

os en Gobernanza de Internet,6 Hiperderecho7 and

technologies used during the pandemic.

Instituto para la Sociedad de la Información y Cuar-

ta Revolución Industrial (ISICRI).8 All of them have

The rise of private surveillance

been working on issues related to the local digital

Alongside the increase in virtual work and life came

ecosystem in the last two years. We also analysed

one  of  the  biggest  changes  in  the  digital  rights

organisations  that  we  were  not  able  to  interview,

landscape: the growth in the use of private surveil-

but  whose  work  allows  us  to  glimpse  changes  in

lance technology. Although they existed before the

their activities.

pandemic,  with  the  arrival  of  COVID-19  there  was

a  massive  demand  for  these  tools,  especially  for

The new (old) normal: Corona apps

remote  surveillance  of  workers,  the  invigilation  or

and fake news

proctoring  of  online  exams,  and  parental  control.

Something  common  to  the  interviewed  organisa-

The  response  to  this  new  situation  seems  to  have

tions seems to be the fact that the sudden imposition

been more limited than in the case of known threats.

of remote work did not imply a drastic change in the

There were only two advocacy research initiatives fo-

development of their activities, at least in the short

cusing on this area in Peru – one in 2020 by Derechos

term.  This  was  due  to  several  factors,  including:

Digitales15 and another in 2021, which ISICRI partici-

their  high  level  of  technology  adoption,  previous

pated in.16 Both considered the impact on privacy of

teleworking experiences, and the small size of their

the  use  of  e-proctoring  in  the  country,  and  in  both

teams.9 On top of this, there was the fact that most

cases the initiatives were financed by the  Fondo de

of these teams lived in Lima (the capital city), where

Respuesta  Rápida  para  la  Protección  de  Derechos

the greatest connectivity coverage is concentrated.

Digitales  en  América  Latina  (Rapid  Response  Fund

For  this  reason,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  re-

for the Protection of Digital Rights in Latin America),

action  of  these  organisations  to  the  appearance

an  emergency  funding  programme  created  by  Ford

of  technologies  such  as  the  corona  apps  and  their

Foundation and managed by Derechos Digitales.17

negative  impact  on  privacy  has  been  well  coordi-

Was the little attention given to private surveil-

nated  and  in  line  with  previous  work,  especially  in

lance due to a lack of interest? Or perhaps a question

the  field  of  surveillance  technologies  deployed  by

of resources? Although it is not possible to point out

governments.  For  example,  Hiperderecho  moni-

one  or  several  causes  for  this  lack  of  response  by

tored the Perú En Tus Manos application and other

digital  rights  organisations,  when  asked  about  the

tools throughout 2020 and 2021, through its “COV-

dangers  of  the  rise  of  private  surveillance,  the  or-

ID-1984”10  website,  and  without  any  additional

ganisations we interviewed indicated that although

funding.11  Meanwhile,  Democracia  y  Desarrollo  In-

they considered these issues to be important, they

ternacional  (D&D  Internacional),  a  non-profit  that

did not plan to include them in their 2022 advocacy

works  on  issues  related  to  digital  democracy,  and

agendas. This was due in part to the prioritisation of

with experience in research and advocacy actions on

other  projects,  but  also  due  to  the  perception  that

“fake news” during elections, did not seem to have

these topics did not align with the work of their local

had a problem adapting its work to advocacy on fake

and regional partners and potential funders.

news related to COVID-19.12

This situation seems to have been similar else-

Increased workload and new partnerships

where  in  the  region.  For  example,  regional  reports

Despite  being  more  prepared  for  remote  work,  as

produced by the non-profit Derechos Digitales13 and

the pandemic progressed, the organisations we in-

terviewed said they felt the wear and tear that was

6  https://www.facebook.com/CGIUSMP

7  https://hiperderecho.org

14  Al Sur. (2021).  Informe  Observatorio Covid-19 del Consorcio Al

8  https://www.isicri.edu.pe

Sur: Un análisis crítico de las tecnologías desplegadas en América

9  At the time of the interviews, all the organisations had fewer than

Latina contra la pandemia. https://www.alsur.lat/sites/default/

10 workers.

files/2021-06/Informe%20Observatorio%20Covid-19%20del%20

10  A tribute to the book  1984 by George Orwell.

Consorcio%20Al%20Sur%282%29.pdf

11  https://hiperderecho.org/covid1984

15  Derechos Digitales. (2020, 28 October). Perú: cuestionamientos

12  Ford, E., & Weck, W. (Eds.) (2020).  Internet and the pandemic in

por uso de reconocimiento facial en admisión universitaria .

the Americas: The first health crisis of the digital era.  https://

https://reconocimientofacial.info/peru-uso-de-reconocimiento-

democraciadigital.pe/sites/default/files/libro-internet-and-the-

facial-en-examen-de-admision-a-universidad-publica-genera-

pandemic-in-the-americas.pdf

cuestionamientos

13  Canales, M. (2020).  La herejía tecno-optimista florece en pandemia:

16  https://www.isicri.edu.pe/proyectos1/ni-un-examen-virtual-ms-

Un repaso crítico a las tecnologías disponibles.  Derechos Digitales.

repensando-el-uso-de-herramientas-de-eproctoring

https://www.derechosdigitales.org/wp-content/uploads/herejia-

17  https://www.derechosdigitales.org/

tecno-optimista.pdf

preguntas-frecuentes-frr/#Que_es_el_FRR

PERU / 183

the result of working online, including the difficulty

the COVID-19 pandemic, most of their projects had

of  separating  personal  life  from  work.  In  addition

changed,  but  in  general  these  changes  were  just

to  some  internal  organisational  problems,  their

minor  modifications,  including  extending  dead-

workload  was  increased  through  a  high  number  of

lines. Instead of entirely new projects, the general

inquiries  and  requests  for  support  from  members

practice was to add a “COVID impact analysis com-

of  their  communities.  Hiperderecho  and  ISICRI

ponent”  to  old  projects,  but  nothing  more.  Even

commented that sometimes they received daily mes-

in the case of ISICRI, which in 2021 worked on the

sages from victims of electronic fraud, identity theft

e-proctoring research, the organisation says it does

and online gender-based violence.

not contemplate continuing to work on this particu-

The increase in cybercrime can be explained in

lar issue in 2022.

part  due  to  the  growth  of  Peruvian  internet  usage

The common perception of the organisations we

between  2020  and  2021.18  At  the  same  time,  the

interviewed seems to be that throughout 2020 and

problem  of  serving  marginalised  communities  that

2021, there was a saturation of proposals from civil

did not have internet access and were suffering be-

society related to COVID-19 issues. This would have

cause of the digital divide persisted. The hosting of

given rise to a large number of projects focusing on

meetings, events and workshops and the sharing of

the pandemic, which would have taken up most of

content through digital platforms also seems to have

the  funding  available  for  research  and  advocacy.

affected to some extent the ability of digital rights or-

With the current remission of the pandemic and the

ganisations to meet the objectives of their projects.

abandonment  of  the  intensive  use  of  certain  tech-

For example, ISICRI had to reformulate several of its

nologies that were supposed to be risky for digital

projects in 2021 due to the impossibility of carrying

rights (such as corona apps or private surveillance),

out activities that required in-person participation.

it  does  not  seem  strategic  to  continue  pushing  an

However,  not  everything  seems  to  have  been

agenda that revolves around these issues.

negative. Along with the increase in internet users,

there  was  also  a  growth  of  grassroots  organisa-

Conclusions

tions  that  eventually  connected  with  digital  rights

Has  the  situation  presented  above  occurred  only

organisations or funders to work on joint agendas.

in Peru? Is it a region-wide situation? While all the

For  example,  the  FotografxsAutoConvocadxs  pho-

organisations  interviewed  agreed  that  the  COV-

tography collective19 joined Hiperderecho in 2021 to

ID-19  pandemic  has  raised  awareness  of  various

develop projects on police surveillance during pro-

issues (the digital divide, data protection, online

tests.20  Observatorio  de  Plataformas,21  an  initiative

gender-based  violence,  freedom  of  expression,

that seeks to improve the working conditions of de-

etc.), it does not seem that this is translating into

livery  platform  workers  in  Peru,  also  secured  more

a radical transformation of priorities or program-

resources to continue its work thanks to the Friedrich

matic agendas.

Ebert  Foundation.22  In  both  cases,  the  connections

The question remains whether the lack of inter-

with these grassroots organisations were made due

est  shown  in  prioritising  emerging  problems  such

to their greater presence of on social media.

as  private  surveillance is  due  to  a  lack  of  capacity,

No major changes in priorities

a  difficulty  in  organisations  analysing  the  poten-

tial longer-term impacts of the pandemic on digital

None of the organisations we interviewed seem to

rights,  evidence  that  the  digital  rights  landscape

have modified their programmatic agendas in sub-

has not shifted much, or simply because of a shift in

stantive  ways. The  organisations  noted  that  since

donor agendas. Although the emergency funds men-

tioned  in  this  article  made  it  possible  to  carry  out

actions  on  these  issues,  this  does  not  necessarily

18  Agencia Andina. (2022, 6 January). Audiencia digital en el Perú

lideró crecimiento en América Latina, según estudio .  https://

mean that ordinary sources of funding – and organ-

andina.pe/agencia/noticia-audiencia-digital-el-peru-lidero-

isations’ advocacy agendas – cannot respond to the

crecimiento-america-latina-segun-estudio-875761.aspx

new sustained threats to digital rights produced by

19  https://www.flickr.com/photos/191780089@N08/

albums?fbclid=IwAR1SWCMSPirkKk4J05HgQizABAip

the pandemic or any other catastrophic event in the

RFCmZolcN75vdGeeZAp6MPwnixNwlng

future. However, in Peru, and given our limited sam-

20  Hiperderecho. (2021, 21 May). Presentamos: ¿Quién vigila

ple of organisations, it does not appear that they are

a los vigilantes? https://hiperderecho.org/2021/05/

presentamos-quien-vigila-a-los-vigilantes

being used to do this.

21  https://opdperu.org

While  it  may  be  that  the  longer-term  implica-

22  Dinegro Martínez, A. (2021).  Delivery y empleo: Diagnóstico

tions  of  the  impact  of  COVID-19  on  digital  rights

sobre las condiciones laborales en las plataformas digitales.

are not yet apparent, it is a concern if this suggests

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/

peru/17952.pdf

that  interventions  on  COVID-19  were  donor-driven,

184  /  Global Information Society Watch

short-term, and did not emerge from an identification

•   Analysing  new  threats:  Digital  rights  organisa-

of potential new systemic threats to digital rights by

tions should conduct an analysis of new threats

the  organisations  themselves.  This  suggests  that

arising  from  the  pandemic  in  order  to  identify

there may be more work necessary in analysing the

the  potential  for  these  threats  to  persist  over

real implications of the pandemic on digital rights,

time,  even  after  the  pandemic  is  over.  This  is

particularly from a country-specific perspective.

necessary  to  properly  understand  if  advocacy

On the other hand, the pandemic does seem to

priorities need to be rethought, and new strate-

have  seen  a  push  towards  collaboration  between

gies developed.

organisations that had not previously had common

•   Stronger  networks:  Digital  rights  organisations

agendas, especially grassroots movements or activ-

should  take  advantage  of  the  increase  in  the

ist groups which were not formally organised. This is

use  of  the  internet  for  interaction  and  work  by

a positive development, and appears to have been

organisations involved in different fields, which

catalysed by the increase in the use of the internet

is  still  the  case,  to  strengthen  their  contact

by organisations across Peru during the worst days

with  organisations  they  may  not  be  aware  of,

of the pandemic.

including  through  joint  projects  and  by  offer-

Action steps

ing capacity-building support. This would allow

stronger  advocacy  networks  to  be  created  that

The following action steps are recommended for dig-

can strengthen digital rights in Peru in the future.

ital rights organisations in Peru:

•   Donor  fatigue:  Funding  organisations  should

•   Regional  spaces:  Digital  rights  organisations

evaluate  the  success  of  emergency  funds  re-

should  support  the  creation  of  regional  spaces

leased  to  respond  to  COVID-19,  including

for dialogue among their peers, in order to share

whether or not they may have detracted from

experiences  and  best  practices  allowing  them

the  potential  of  funding  longer-term  digital

to  improve  their  ability  to  react  to  new  threats

rights  issues  that  may  have  emerged  during

that  are  not  usually  part  of  their  agendas  or

the pandemic.

lines of work. These spaces can also be used to

understand better how to deal with the fatigue

produced by the new dynamics of remote work,

anticipating  that  the  current  situation  will  con-

tinue for a few more years.

PERU / 185

SPAIN

FOR BETTER OR WORSE? THE IMPACT OF AN ACCELERATED

TRANSITION TO ONLINE WORK AND LIFE

were affected too. The digital world is not easily ac-

Pangea and the eReuse.org initiative

Lorena Merino, Mireia Roura and Leandro Navarro

cessible  and  sometimes  is  difficult  to  understand

https://pangea.org and https://www.ereuse.org

and manage.

Two years later, for those who could get online,

much of their work and activities have shifted to the

Introduction

digital world, with many businesses and universities

The  beginning  of  2020  was  the  year  of  the  COV-

now  considering  hybrid  models  of  work,  teaching

ID-19  pandemic,  when  the  first  lockdowns  took

and interaction. We are getting used to it. But will it

place, which were the strictest during the first half

be good for people and the planet?

of the year. The limitations to mobility and contact,

which impacted work, education, social contact and

The rapid transition to a new digital normal

businesses,  and  shifted  our  daily  schedules  and

In  Pangea’s  day-to-day  work,  the  first  queries  we

routines, led to a boom in teleworking and the “dig-

received  and  our  main  workload  were  in  the  area

ital world” that has changed the lives of people for

of our email service. Many of our partners had their

better and worse simultaneously. When the Spanish

email accounts configured with POP3 on their office

government declared the first state of alarm, citizens

and work PCs. In the first weeks and months we re-

moved  from  public  spaces  into  their  homes,  and

ceived  many  requests  for  help  to  reconfigure  their

from their homes to their screens.

email accounts on their PCs at home in order to be

For  Pangea,  the  first  year  of  the  pandemic

able  to  continue  working.  These  queries  were  for

meant an increase in the workload, with our ser-

help in setting up email accounts in different email

vices  mainly  focused  on  helping  our  members  to

programs (Thunderbird, Outlook, Gmail, etc.) and to

be  able  to  continue  working  from  home  during

access and copy messages saved by POP3 on office

times of confinement.

PCs. There was also a significant number of queries

But about 15% of households in Catalonia were

from members who switched directly to Roundcube,

unable to do so, as they did not have a computer at

a webmail manager that we have available for Pan-

home with which they could remain connected to the

gea members.

world,  or  exercise  fundamental  rights  such  as  ac-

The  other  large  bulk  of  enquiries  was  for  help

cessing education or public services. In our eReuse

in using the Nextcloud3 service. The use of this ser-

project,1 we witnessed how precarious the situation

vice  skyrocketed  in  2020.  The  number  of  Pangea

of many families was, and how resources impacted

members who started using it or extended its use in

the possibilities of accessing information and com-

order to have their organisation’s files in the cloud

munications  technologies  (ICTs)  –  from  the  most

for teleworking grew significantly. We went from just

basic  things  like  having  a  computer,  to  connecting

over a hundred accounts in Nextcloud in 2019 to 500

to the internet or having the necessary software to

accounts by the end of 2021. The amount of space

interact properly or do work at home.

occupied  has  also  grown  significantly,  exceeding

According  to  the  United  Nations  Development

1.6 TB in Nextcloud. Apart from Pangea’s Nextcloud

Programme (UNDP), the school enrolment ratio due

service, some partners also used Google Drive and

to the digital divide fell worldwide in the first months

Dropbox, and sometimes they asked us for support

of the pandemic to levels seen in 1985.2 While it was

in using these services even though we do not offer

difficult and costly for families with school children

them.

to  engage  in  remote  learning,  those  who  had  lost

In  addition  to  help  with  email  and  using  Next-

their  jobs  struggled  to  stay  online.  Older  people

cloud, there were also many enquiries and demands

for videoconferencing services and services for sem-

inars and online training. Pangea does not offer any

of these services, but they are offered by the Guifi.

1  https://eReuse.org

2  UNDP. (2020).  COVID-19 and Human Development: Assessing

the Crisis, Envisioning the Recovery. https://hdr.undp.org/en/

hdp-covid

3  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nextcloud

186  /  Global Information Society Watch

net Foundation with whom we collaborate closely, so

effects on employment, economics, etc., has led to

we advised and recommended to members that they

“digital burnout” for many people. In part this is a

use Jitsi and BigBlueButton and approach the Guifi.

result of not being able to manage teleworking well,

net  Foundation  for  help.  Advice  and  recommenda-

working  longer  hours  than  required  or  than  usual,

tions were also given on other available platforms,

with no real disconnection between work and family

such  as  Zoom.  Despite  the  demand,  the  fact  that

life, with everything being done in the same space

the Guifi.net Foundation offers the services, and the

at home. This may not be the case for everyone, but

limited capacity of our infrastructure and the work of

in the case of Pangea’s staff, and certainly in terms

our staff, we decided against the possibility of offer-

of work hours, the extra effort that was needed was

ing the services directly to our members, preferring

very noticeable during 2020 – we had to help all the

instead to continue the collaboration with the Guifi.

members  who  needed  it  and  not  leave  anyone  be-

net Foundation.

hind. For the members, it was critical and urgent to

Other  services  about  which  we  have  been  con-

be able to telework, and for us this urgency meant

sulted  were  remote  desktops  (we  do  not  offer  the

a work overload, with not enough time to properly

service and unfortunately, we have not found a free

disconnect or to be able to rest.

software alternative that we could recommend, fall-

Digital inequality became a blatant inequity that

ing  back  on  commercial  and  paid  options  such  as

the government was forced to address. And it did so

TeamViewer  or  Google  tools),  and  virtual  private

through the old familiar linear economy model, with

networks  (VPNs).  We  have  offered  advice  to  some

the  government  of  Catalonia  putting  out  a  tender

member organisations about setting up their VPNs

for the acquisition of more than 300,000 laptops for

and  accessing  their  local  server  to  be  able  to  tele-

some 82 million euros. The number was insufficient

work, but this has been limited advice.

for  the  existing  needs  and  the  solution  turned  out

We do not have precise data on the increase in

to not be so effective: in January 2021, eight months

the workload that COVID-19 has meant for our activi-

later, only 5% of the laptops had reached their des-

ties, but as a qualitative assessment we can say that

tination. The shortages of devices and components

the number of email messages received or answered

and stockouts highlighted the underlying lack of re-

at  suport@pangea.org  went  from  2,412  in  2019  to

silience of the capitalist system globally, and of the

3,827  in  2020,  exceeding  900  support  tickets  in

linear economy, in particular.

2021. So far the level of this workload has stayed the

Indeed,  while  demand  for  new  PCs  has  grown

same in 2022 – suggesting that the solutions mem-

with  the  rise  of  teleworking  and  home  schooling,

bers  explored  are  still  being  used,  and  were  not  a

supply has decreased due to supply chain problems

once-off fix for the lockdowns.

(especially  with  respect  to  computer  chips)  and

We do not have data on the number of calls re-

transportation  problems.  While  analysts  forecast

ceived, but qualitatively we can see that the number

refurbished PC sales to grow at a compound annual

of calls tripled in the first quarter of 2020, taking up

growth rate (CAGR) of 11% between 2019 and 2027,4

many  days  of  the  support  person’s  half-day  work

reuse  centres  in  Catalonia  have  seen  significant

time, as well as extra time answering messages left

increases  in  sales  of  functional  equipment  as  con-

on  our  answering  machine.  The  telephone  work-

sumer patterns are slowly changing.

load decreased a lot during 2021, returning to what

The  pandemic  brought  out  the  worst  and  the

was usual in pre-pandemic times. We associate this

best  in  society.  Hundreds  of  initiatives  began  to

mainly with the fact that many people have already

emerge  in  the  territory  with  the  aim  of  alleviating

organised themselves for telework and do not need

the digital divide. Citizen activities to donate and re-

the extra help needed at the start of the pandemic.

pair  computers  followed  one  after  the  other  in  the

best possible way – the situation did not allow for an

The tech “side effects” of the pandemic

assessment of which devices were useful, or which

In the light of all this information, it should not be

beneficiaries  needed  additional  skills  to  use  them

forgotten  that  this  landing  of  the  “digital  world”

properly. However, while citizen mobilisation helped

in  our  daily  lives,  from  work  to  our  personal  lives,

to  narrow  the  digital  divide  as  much  as  it  could,  it

which COVID-19 has accelerated exponentially, has

also  awakened  the  old  trauma  of  the  level  of  ine-

brought with it side effects that are sometimes not

quality in society, which remains unresolved.

as wonderful as we might think.

The  eReuse  project  manages  the  donation  of

For  example,  having  to  telework  and  become

computers from public and private entities to social

more active socially online in order to adapt to the

new  situation,  together  with  the  uncertainty  and

insecurity  derived  from  the  restrictions  and  their

4  https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/refurbished-com-

puters-laptops-market.html

SPAIN / 187

entities, sending them to companies that refurbish

effects (e.g. exploitation of our data and condition-

them for reuse or recycle them when they are not re-

ing of our choices through advertising).

usable. During the first two years of the pandemic,

It has left a more skilled population accustomed

our eReuse software recorded a significant increase

to online activities. It has also left a more isolated

in the number of devices donated, refurbished and

and  precarious  population  –  those  who  have  not

traced  for  subsequent  recirculation.  Thousands  of

been  able  to  “go  digital”.  It  has  changed  and  ad-

devices were recirculated to the most disadvantaged

vanced  the  way  we  relate  digitally  with  public  and

population at an average price of about 40 euros of

private organisations. It has also made us aware of

refurbishment  cost  per  tower  –  a  cost  which  was

the  risks  and  limitations  of  the  online  world  com-

taken up by crowdfunding campaigns, local cooper-

pared to the offline world.

ation projects and public institutions or paid by the

These changes, and the normalisation of the dig-

end-users themselves. This is a much more advanta-

ital, have helped those with sufficient resources and

geous price for the public coffers than the 300-400

training more, and have therefore widened the gap

euros per laptop that was tendered for the purchase

between  those  who  do  and  do  not  have  them.  Ac-

of new devices.

cess to the offline world begins with walking into the

These  numbers  were  made  possible  thanks

public space. In contrast, access to the digital world

to  the  cooperation  between  about  20  social  and

requires  a  digital  device  and  a  connection,  which

solidarity economy organisations, which collect, re-

come at an economic, educational, privacy and en-

furbish and distribute equipment, even in a chaotic

vironmental cost. We need to buy digital media on

context where demand was soaring during the peaks

the market and pay with money and our data to be

of the pandemic.

present in an increasingly privatised and extractive

During  the  first  two  years  of  the  pandemic,

digital world.

headlines highlighting the “digital divide” had their

Our  digital  “life”  requires  a  sustainable  digi-

moments in the media and on social networks. This

tal world for people and nature, as a global public

marketing  of  inequality  has  contributed  to  mak-

good. We must ensure that we have the freedom to

ing  the  inequalities  more  visible  and  to  deepening

participate  –  that  this  participation  is  not  a  barrier

our  understanding  of  its  multiple  facets,  while  en-

for anyone. We need to have a device and a connec-

couraging  the  involvement  of  citizens,  businesses,

tion,  be  able  to  share  or  publish  our  ideas,  satisfy

non-profits  and  public  administrations.  In  gener-

our  needs,  and  be  able  to  interact  with  companies

al,  there  has  also  been  a  shift  from  emergency  or

or  public  entities  without  being  forced  to  use  or

welfare action by citizens or corporate social respon-

contract  commercial  services  that  limit,  exploit  or

sibility  campaigns  to  political  action  and  solutions

exclude us. We need to have the autonomy to decide

based  on  public-community  partnerships.  In  this

(what hardware to have, what software to use, how

framework, working groups, networks, public funds

to connect to the digital world), with the confidence

and facilities to ensure access to devices and the in-

of  understanding  clearly  what  is  being  done  with

ternet, as well as to alleviate skills and knowledge

our  data  and  how  things  work,  so  that  we  are  not

gaps, have increased considerably.

deceived and manipulated through self-interest and

However,  there  are  still  more  questions  than

the use of biased data. We need the peace of mind

answers, and new challenges emerge. For example,

of knowing that this digital world does not contrib-

while  connectivity  exists,  it  sometimes  is  available

ute to destroying the planet, but rather to protecting

at unfair prices and under unfair conditions. We find

it  in  a  way  that  supports  us  and  supports  future

families spending around and beyond 10% of their

generations.

disposable income to pay for the internet and devic-

es for their digital life and work. This situation has

Action steps

prompted  the  Spanish  government  to  reform  the

Given that more people are online now, and that hy-

Telecommunications Law to ensure that retail prices

brid  ways  of  socialising,  working  and  learning  are

are accessible to citizens with low incomes or social

becoming the norm, we need to rapidly upscale the

support needs.

public  debate  on  exactly  what  the  sustainable  and

ethical use of technology means. The following key

Conclusion

issues need to be taken into consideration:

The pandemic has forced us to rethink the way we

•  What  are  the  ethical  choices  that  we  need  to

work and relate to each other and has created new

make when contracting internet and online ser-

needs.  This  has  presented  us  with  choices  among

vice providers? Key flashpoints include whether

different  options  which  entail  different  economic

or  not  the  services  use  open  source  or  propri-

costs, individual and collective costs, as well as side

etary  systems,  whether  they  are  extractive  or

188  /  Global Information Society Watch

non-extractive business models (e.g. do they rely

•  The need for training and support in technolog-

on data extraction and manipulation for profit?),

ical decision making and the sustainable use of

and how their activities impact on digital rights.

technology  should  be  considered.  How  to  pre-

•  With  regard  to  economic  models,  choices  need

vent  data  capture  by  public  and  private  actors

to  be  made  between  diversity  or  uniformity  of

that limit our rights needs to be thought through,

products  and  services,  local  or  global  services

and  how  best  to  exercise  and  expand  human

or  products,  the  use  of  private  companies  or

rights online. Related to this, there is a need for

cooperatives working for social inclusion or pro-

open data and flexible and free digital tools for

moting  a  solidarity  economy,  and  a  privatised

community awareness and action.

versus  commons  governance  model  for  digital

•  Biased, unreliable information is free and easy to

infrastructures.

find on the internet. Verified information – which

•  The  production  and  use  of  devices  need  to  be

is properly referenced, argued and reliable – re-

considered:  How  does  a  linear  versus  circular

quires  ways  to  fund  its  development,  and  is  a

economy contribute to or detract from local de-

requirement  for  digital  sovereignty,  more  citi-

velopment, the economy, people, and the natural

zen  freedom,  and  less  manipulation  of  public

environment? What are the impacts of our devic-

discourse.

es on sustainability?

SPAIN / 189

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA,

AND LATIN AMERICA

COLMENA: A STORY OF TECHNOLOGICAL CO-CREATION WITH LOCAL AND COMMUNITY MEDIA

these alternatives is Colmena, a free/libre and open

DW Akademie and Redes por la Diversidad, Equidad y

Sustentabilidad A.C. (REDES A.C.)

source  media  toolbox  that  brings  together  in  one

Adrián López Angulo, Adriana Veloso Meireles, Carlos

application all the essential workflows for local and

Henrique Gontijo Paulino, David Ramírez García, María

community media production.

Álvarez Malvido, Nils Brock and Vivienne Gager

www.dw.com/en/about-us/s-9519 and www.redesac.org.mx

From multi-site research to a collective

response

The challenge of communicating a pandemic

The  pandemic  imposed  different  challenges  and

restrictions on the workflows of community media.

No community on earth has escaped the COVID-19

Some had to completely close their studios during

pandemic, which has been intensively documented

national lockdowns, as was the case of Radio Con-

by the media across the world. This includes commu-

feniae,  transmitting  from  the  Ecuadorian  Amazon.

nity radio and online media outlets organised by the

Others, like Gulf Radio, located in a fishing commu-

communities themselves, which offered indispensa-

nity  in  Kenya,  had  to  restrict  access  to  small  staff

ble platforms for grassroots voices, especially in rural

teams and could not host programmes with guests.

and Indigenous territories of the global South. These

And even where stations could almost broadcast in

“communicators”  were  important  “translators”  of

the  way  they  did  before  the  pandemic,  as  was  the

online  and  other  information  for  communities  and

case for Radio Vénégré in Burkina Faso, they quickly

had to rapidly update their knowledge on aerosols,

had to adapt to the challenge of insufficient respons-

vaccines and how to locally organise health and care

es by local authorities or “fake news” circulating on

strategies.1 Community media rely on interpersonal

the health crisis.

contact to collaborate, build agendas for advocacy,

Despite  these  disparate  situations,  a  common

and produce and air their productions. Though per-

experience was the need to rapidly adapt to the use

sonal  computers  can  be  found  in  most  community

of new digital tools to be informed and inform others

radio stations, this is not the case in many homes.

about the spread of the coronavirus. But besides the

Mobile  phones  and  online  access  became  a  life-

advantages of digital tools, the communicators also

line to continue working. However, what started as

started to perceive new risks with the use of proprie-

an  opportunity  to  explore  new  tools  and  ways  of

tary tools (economic exclusions, privacy, new digital

relating online quickly increased a reliance on com-

hierarchies), and insightful debates within the com-

mercial software.

munity media environment were sparked around the

Our  report2  explores  the  ways  in  which  com-

safety, sustainability and ownership of these means

municators  became  aware    of  the  different  values

of production.3

embedded  in  online  spaces  and  tools  in  compar-

To engage with these discussions, DW Akademie

ison  to  the  locally  developed  models  of  “shared

executed  a  multi-site  research  project,  under  the

ownership”  practised  in  their  collectives.  Wheth-

auspices of its Global Crisis Initiative (GKI).4 A gen-

er  conscious  or  not,  it  was  a  moment  when  many

eral  survey  of  34  participating  media  outlets  from

community media started to translate their right to

different regions across Latin America and Africa, de-

communicate to be meaningful in digital spaces – a

fining themselves as “community media”, confirmed

debate  that  sparked  interest  in  finding  or  creating

alternative  tools  for  online  media  practice.  One  of

3  Media outlets like Boca de Polen from Mexico quickly understood

that these digital tools made them more vulnerable, as Janis Carillo

points out with regard to privacy concerns: “We have detected the

1  For an example of a regional analysis, from a South Afri-

needs but we don’t know how to solve them. Awareness is there,

can perspective, see: Health-e News. (2021, 31 March).

which is sometimes the most complicated thing.”

Community media left behind in the fight against the COV-

4  More about the GKI, launched in January 2021, can be found here:

ID-19 infodemic. https://health-e.org.za/2021/03/31/

https://www.dw.com/en/initiative-transparency-and-media-free-

community-media-challenges-covering-covid-19

dom-crisis-resilience-in-the-global-pandemic/a-57443977. The 2  This report covers the following countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina

body of the research included a document review, market/actor

Faso, Colombia, Ecuador, Ghana, Guatemala, Kenya, Mexico,

network analysis, the mapping of media workflows, focus group

Morocco, Peru, Tunisia and Venezuela.

discussions, regional workshops, a survey and an interview series.

190  /  Global Information Society Watch

that FM radio remains by far the most popular media

PAR provided a means for dialogue among the radio

format  in  rural  communities. While  the  importance

stations,  media  collectives  and  DW  Akademie  and

of audio-based radio is undeniable, two-thirds of the

REDES  AC.  It  was  a  way  to  create  a  shared  under-

outlets  surveyed  employ  strategies  for  publishing

standing  of  how  the  daily  workflow  and  content

audio, text and multimedia content online. Further,

creation of each media outlet or station is organised.

a series of in-depth interviews revealed that techno-

This was vital knowledge, since our toolkit is meant

logical choices for online communication were often

to  contribute  to  diverse  and  collective  communica-

informed by the necessity to find a quick solution in

tions practices and ways of living and sustaining life.

the context of the pandemic.5 After this gathering of

For  the  media  collectives,  this  approach  pro-

user stories, the ongoing process of co-creating Col-

voked the key question of how the lives of individual

mena started.

collaborators, as well as their collective and organi-

Teaming up were Redes por la Diversidad, Equi-

sational processes, had been affected by COVID-19.

dad  y  Sustentabilidad  A.C  (REDES  A.C.),  an  NGO

What  prevented  them  from  carrying  out  their  daily

based in Mexico, DW Akademie, and a group of initial-

activities?  The  dialogue  confirmed  their  “difficulty

ly 12 and later 22 media outlets6 from Latin America

in remaining in contact with communities” and their

and Africa. Working together, the first concept of an

need  to  “restructure  their  internal  collaboration

open source, virtual newsroom was developed. The

working from afar.”7 The biggest loss was definitely

main challenge, especially in rural spaces with limit-

a common physical space and the daily interaction

ed online connectivity, was to provide a lightweight,

that happened there.

secure and mobile toolkit that allows media outlets

The move to “virtual spaces” in rural communi-

to exchange critical information, publish their work

ties  became  a  challenging  task.  The  participating

and stay in contact with their audiences. At the same

media pointed out the high costs of connectivity and

time, an increased need for safe online spaces and

the limited online access in their territories, together

digital inclusiveness was identified. And by listening

with the lack of information to find free digital tools.

to the different realities and cultural contexts of the

Therefore, many of them used commercial software

partners, a common need was confirmed: to address

solutions.8  A  great  dependency  on  for-profit  plat-

intersectionality,  gender  and  diversity  issues,  ac-

forms became evident, resulting in additional costs

knowledging the different contexts and territories in

or, if used “for free”, exposing them to the harvesting

which radio stations are located.

of their user data in a problematic way – including for

Putting all the identified observations and ideas

independent and investigative journalists working in

of the communities at the centre, and working with

communities.9  Another  hard  lesson  shared  by  the

a team of expert developers, we started to translate

community  media  was  the  experience  of  how  little

them into practical technology.

the proprietary tools could be combined with other

tools, or modified to suit their needs. Workflows for

Participatory action in practice

analogical  FM  transmission  –  let’s  say  a  live  inter-

Colmena’s  co-created  design  process  included

view in a radio studio – now involved several devices

community,  rural  and  Indigenous  media  and  oth-

and software tools.

er  organisations,  like  Bolivia’s  first  feminist  online

Was there really no integrated solution at hand?

review  Muy  Waso  and  free/libre  software  activists

The  media  outlets  began  to  envision  “a  commonly

in  Latin  America  and  Africa,  using  a  methodology

owned  platform  to  exchange  files”,  a  design  that

based  on  participatory  action  research  (PAR).  This

would  “take  into  account  poor  connectivity”,  and

approach seeks to take a step back from technology,

“backup  and  publishing  solutions”  that  would

following a path of reflection that starts from the ter-

enhance the creative capacities of community, collec-

ritories and dreams of the communities themselves.

tive, Indigenous and rural media. Most importantly,

5  A total of 22 interviews were conducted between January and March

2021, with a special focus on rural communities.

6  The participating media are: Muy Waso (Bolivia), Remando/Voz de

7  Both quotes are comments that were made and documented during

la Confeniae (Ecuador), Radio Sayaxché (Guatemala), Boca de Polen

the first exploratory workshop sessions.

(Mexico), Radio Ocaina/Red Cantoyaco (Colombia), Unión de Mujeres

8  As Jenny Paucar from the Peruvian Union of Aymara Women of

Aymaras del Abya Yala (Peru), Red de Radios Comunitarias y Software

Abya Yala (UMA) points out: “We had never heard about Zoom and

Libre (inter-regional), Rádio Comunitária Aconchego (Brazil), Copiô

the possibility to meet in those [digital] spaces. So when did this

Parente! (Brazil), Saúde, Alegria e Sustentabilidade (Brazil), Radio

become interesting? When we could no longer gather in on-site

Ada/Ghana Community Radio Network (Ghana), Radio Breezy/Ghana

meetings.”

Community Radio Network (Ghana), Gulf Radio (Kenya), Radio Amani

9  For the participating media, WhatsApp was the tool used for

(Kenya), Pwani FM (Kenya), Radio Rahma (Kenya), Radio Vénégré

internal communication, Google Drive led in file sharing, and Zoom

(Burkina Faso), Radio Mères en Ligne (Morocco), E-Joussour FMAS

was the preferred platform for video conferencing. These and other

(Morocco), and Radio Nefzawa (Tunisia).

commercial solutions dominated workflow organisation.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA / 191

they wanted “to have it all integrated in one place.”10

languages (English, Spanish, Portuguese, French,

The collaborative naming of our tool was also part of

Swahili  and  Arabic)  and  to  allow  user-driven

the  co-creation  process. The  media  outlets  all  pro-

translation to make the tool available for various

posed  concepts  and  metaphors  from  their  distinct

interpretations and cultures.

cultures and spaces. From this and other ideas, pos-

In  addition  to  the  development  team,  we  also

sible names emerged, with the group finally settling

had  to  define  a  coherent  (open  source)  production

on “Colmena”, which in Spanish means “beehive”.

environment  for  Colmena,  and  the  choice  was  a

The  name  and  the  corresponding  branding  both

software factory system called GitLab.14 It provides

emphasised a common and co-owned space for col-

the  infrastructure  to  apply  agile  project  manage-

laboration:  a  space  where  bees  (communicators)

ment  methodologies  and  thereby  deliver  ongoing

can meet to work and share pollen (information) for

updates and increments to the coding. The platform

the creation of honey (content) that gives continuity

also  allowed  the  team  to  incorporate  the  feedback

to collective life.11

from  communities,  and  respond  to  their  different

To  put  this  beehive  into  action,  a  “special”

cultures  and  customs.  This  dialogue  constantly

development  team  was  needed.  Besides  the  tech-

nourished  the  progress  of  features  and  the  overall

nical  skills,  there  was  a  need  for  a  shared  ethical

design. In technical terms, Colmena consists of two

grounding  and  a  common  perspective  on  threats

main  components:  (1)  a  lightweight  progressive

that community media face going online. More than

web application (PWA) working on a wide range of

ever, human rights and principles such as freedom

mobile and desktop devices for easy online/offline

of expression and privacy are at risk due to the au-

creation and collaboration; and (2) a secure and de-

thoritarian  advances  made  in  countries  and  the

centralised  cloud  management  platform  for  up  to

dominance of big tech in its business model based

1,000  users,  offering  sharing,  storage  and  publish-

on  data  mining.  So-called  surveillance  capitalism

ing  tools.  Combining  both  environments,  Colmena

provides little space for grassroots communities to

offers  all  essential  tools  for  local  and  community

thrive  and  collaborate  towards  an  open  web.12 The

media  production  workflows:  high  quality  face-to-

persons  accepting  the  challenge  to  code  Colmena

face mobile recording; a recording studio for online

brought with them expertise and involvement in ag-

interviews;  live  audio  streaming;  text  and  audio

ile open government initiatives and were well aware

editing tools; a publication and dissemination area

that Colmena would have to take into account ques-

connected to the main media platforms; and working

tions of low connectivity and the digital divide.13

groups with the possibility of easily sharing various

The  tech  team  put  much  emphasis  on  inter-

types of files for collective production. Summarised,

active  design  and  “built-in”  diversity.  Usability

it  offered  most  of  the  tools  that  community  media

issues  and  user  experience  were  taken  into  ac-

need for production in an all-in-one secure and free

count from the very early stages of development.

package. The long-term vision of the project is to use

This guaranteed that the diverse needs for using

an ethical infrastructure (hosting) to offer a sustain-

the software were catered for. It was also collec-

able alternative to big tech services.

tively  decided  to  make  Colmena  available  in  six

Working with the concept of privacy by default,

the  application  values  information  security  and

10  As Paúl Salas from the Ecuadorian community radio network

the  data  protection  of  users.  It  ensures  the  inter-

(CORAPE) pointed out: “It would be interesting to have an app to

operability  of  content  by  adopting  international

capture the voice with quality, be able to edit on the phone and be

protocols like Dublin Core for metadata. As it is de-

able to send. It is essential to facilitate the dynamics of journalists.”

11  To share a piece of this debate, let’s listen to the co-founder of

signed for low-connectivity environments, Colmena

Muy Waso magazine from Bolivia, Michelle Nogales: “We dream

includes  the  principle  of  universal  access,  with  a

of having a safe space to share our data, with a place that brings

mobile-first  approach  in  the  beginning  and  an  in-

together the content, a quality tool, fast and free. With this platform

we dream of having everything in one place, on your phone or

terest to explore potentials for interoperability with

computer, with free and open source software. A beehive as a place

community-driven and sustained approaches to se-

where we all get together to work, where there is what we need to

have our final products.”

curing  connectivity.15  The  debate  of  technological

12  For an interview with Shoshana Zuboff, who coined the concept of

principles and digital rights inspired proposals that

“surveillance capitalism”, see: Kavenna, J. (2019, 4 October). Shos-

hana Zuboff: ‘Surveillance capitalism is an assault on human auton-

omy’.  The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/

14  Find out more about GitLab here: https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab

oct/04/shoshana-zuboff-surveillance-capitalism-assault-human-

15  This includes practical experiences in designing and setting up in-

-automomy-digital-privacy

tranets in Indigenous and rural communities by REDES A.C. (see: ht-

13  By such innitatives, we especially refer to projects that were part of

tps://www.redesac.org.mx/intranets), as well as the even broader

the “Pontos de Cultura” created by the Brazilian Ministry of Culture

approach of “community networks”, which focuses on the creation

in 2010. This programme included intensive work with open source

of an enabling environment for communities to connect themselves,

software and tried to put into practice a “digital inslusion” strategy.

as pursued through the local networks initiative by APC and Rhizo-

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontos_de_Cultura

matica (see: https://www.apc.org/en/tags/community-networks).

192  /  Global Information Society Watch

translated  participatory  media  making,  intercul-

Inclusive co-creation as a key for human-

turality,  intersectionality  and  gender  perspectives

centred and nature-positive technologies

into  collaborative  online  and  offline  action.  Rather

In times when information becomes a matter of sus-

than being driven by a theoretical understanding of

taining  life  and  care,  community  radios  and  media

its usefulness, the collective ideas that underpinned

have been shown to have played a central role in re-

the development of Colmena were practical, and al-

sponding to the COVID-19 health emergency across

ways driven by the question: How could it be a safe

the world.16

and diverse space for all?

As  the  Colmena  experience  demonstrates,  dig-

Based  on  this  guiding  question,  and  through  a

ital  strategies  are  important  to  allow  community

collaborative approach, a gender analysis was con-

communicators  to  operate  with  safe  tools  that  di-

ducted  in  parallel  to  the  development  of  Colmena.

alogue  with  the  collective  values  and  practices  of

This  has  highlighted  the  potential  for  Colmena  to

their  territories.17  By  involving  media  outlets  from

proactively  promote  gender  equality.  The  need  for

Latin America and Africa in the creation of the soft-

a  space  to  listen  and  exchange  on  gender-related

ware,  we  were  able  to  design  a  solution  (or  rather

issues became vital to the project – it showed that

an  offer)  that  is  sensitive  to  shared  realities  in  the

while there was a longing to share experiences and

global South and ready to be used, modified and im-

collaborate  on  gender-related  concerns  and  chal-

proved to suit daily routines.

lenges, there was also a need for a space where the

Undertaking such a journey, one that locates di-

documentation of security and digital rights issues

was  transparent.  For  us  this  meant  integrating  an

versity as the starting point, has its own challenges,

intersectional  gender  perspective  into  the  entire

such  as  finding  the  right  communication  channels

project,  and  aligning  the  technical  implementation

that bridge linguistic barriers and time zones, as well

of Colmena in a way that helped to overcome gen-

as  identifying  common  grounding  priorities,  needs

der-specific barriers.

and  desires  that  can  shape  a  project  like  Colmena

One result was us creating a safe space as a per-

as a “hive” that is meaningful and accessible to all.

manent  feature  in  Colmena.  This  involved  setting

Designing  a  tool  that  responds  to  local  needs

up a dedicated “honeycomb” (a closed chat group)

across the world could only have been undertaken

for women. The initial idea was developed in more

as a collective effort. In this sense, the approach of

detail in subsequent workshops and conceived as a

co-creation that was necessary to build Colmena has

space where relevant content, workshops and train-

become a beehive itself: a process-oriented journey

ing materials could be shared between women, and

rather than a technological solution that is meaning-

where women could communicate openly with each

ful in the relationships that are woven through the

other.

reflections and the collective knowledge created in

Meanwhile, the media collectives began to mo-

the testing processes.

bilise  their  communication  skills  around  Colmena.

One of the key learnings of this dialogue is the

They developed translations of the menus and static

need  for  constant  capacity  building  to  make  such

content  of  the  website,  engaged  in  online  debates

a  collaborative  process  truly  transformative.  Relat-

and held training sessions on the use of free technol-

ed  to  the  great  cultural  diversity  embedded  in  the

ogies,  such  as  on  free/libre  software  and  licences,

initiative, each media outlet brought with it specif-

podcasts,  autonomous  servers  and  audio  editing.

ic  weaknesses  and  strengths.  But  while  in-person

These accompanied the development process of the

training was not possible due to the pandemic, our

platform.  This  proactiveness  of  media  outlets  and

online approach still turned those differences into a

collectives was vital to the development of Colmena,

productive force for mutual learning and creation.

and helped the developers understand and respond

Taking one step back from the dialogue with ru-

to  the  needs  and  visions  of  the  communities  that

ral and Indigenous communities, Colmena can also

were going to use the media toolbox.

be  read  as  an  attempt  to  practically  answer  how

This  flexibility  is  key  in  a  world  that  is  still  ad-

democratic and collaborative governance processes

justing  to  a  post-COVID  situation.  The  project  is

16  This argument is supported by several case studies worldwide,

committed to strengthening all communicators who

such as this one from an Indian perspective: Laskar, K. A., & Bhatta-

produce  content  that  helps  communities  flourish.

charyya, B. (2021). Community radio stations’ production responses

And  though  we  hope  that  many  beehives  will  join

to COVID-19 pandemic in India.  Media Asia, 48(4), 243-257. https://

doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2021.1970421

the  Colmena  project,  the  open  source  software  is

17  Brock, N., Gager, V., & García Gago, S. (2021, 10 September).

also available to other media outlets, community ini-

Colmena open source software: Community media brave the

tiatives and the open source community who want to

pandemic with a “beehive”.  DW Akademie. https://www.dw.com/

en/colmena-open-source-software-community-media-brave-the-

build alternative digital ecosystems.

pandemic-with-a-beehive/a-59147718

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA, AND LATIN AMERICA / 193

can  be  applied  to  software  development. The  situ-

by showing how the right can be achieved on the

ated application of free/libre software philosophies

ground.

and methodologies is a feasible path to follow, and

•  Build  alliances  between  organisations  (media

is not restricted to hackers. Instead it is open to col-

outlets,  the  free/libre  software  community,  ac-

laborative  efforts  involving  diverse  participants.  It

ademia,  human  rights  and  other  civil  society

can be essential to promoting open communications

organisations)  to  support  community-centred,

systems based on human rights principles, as well

co-owned infrastructure.

as nature-positive digital solutions, and responding

•  Support the long journey towards the autonomy

to the challenges of maintaining them.18

and  sovereignty  of  Indigenous  and  community

media through collaborative tools that respond

Action steps

to  their  own  ways  of  creating,  producing,  pre-

The following advocacy priorities are suggested by

serving  and  sharing  information,  content,

the Colmena project:

languages and stories.

•  Create  alternative  communication  solutions

•  Reflect  on  how  an  intersectional  gender  ap-

with Indigenous and community-based activists,

proach  can  be  embedded  in  the  technical

journalists and radio producers that allow them

implementation of the project to overcome gen-

to share and collaborate meaningfully in the de-

der-specific barriers.

velopment of those solutions. In this way, these

•  Explore and promote nature-positive technologies

initiatives  will  contribute  to  advocacy  pushing

when  developing  collaborative  media  tools,  even

for the right to communicate in a concrete way

though this is a difficult and challenging task.

18  To truly become nature-positive in such a short amount of time was

a challenge and remains a “technological debt” for the ongoing

development of Colmena. While the lightweight PWA design

allows for a broad use of already existing hardware (and even a

bit of upcycling), the currently used cloud infrastructure has a

negative impact on nature due its carbon emission footprint. Our

commitment is to become “carbon zero” in the next 12 months and

to further engage in circular economy and upcycling reflections.

194  /  Global Information Society Watch

SUDAN

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 AND US SANCTIONS ON DIGITAL RIGHTS

IN SUDAN

Information and Communication Technologies Syndicate

The impact of US technology sanctions

Wala Ahmed Elfadul Mohammed, with Sidrat Elmontaha,    on Sudan

Mohamed Elhassan, Mohamed Said and Mukhtar Atif

Sudan has a total diverse population of 44.38 million

Elshiekh

people  with  a  Human  Development  Index  score  of

wala.ahmed@outlook.com

0.510 in 2019.This ranked the country in the lowest

category,  positioning  it  at  170  out  of  189  countries

and  territories.  Tribal  conflict,  a  lack  of  awareness

Introduction

about the importance of education, and chronic un-

derdevelopment contribute to the poor schooling of

United  States  (US)  economic  and  technology

children in Sudan.1

sanctions  have  played  a  major  role  in  the  digi-

In  1997,  the  US  imposed  economic  sanctions

tal  divide  and  decades  of  economic  isolation  of

against the government of Sudan because of its con-

Sudan.  In  December  2018,  peaceful  demonstra-

tinued sponsorship of international terrorism. These

tions  started  in  the  country  and  continued  for

included a comprehensive trade embargo and block-

over  eight  months,  with  protestors  calling  for

ing the assets of Sudan’s government.2

democracy and the removal of the dictatorial re-

Sanctions  were  expanded  in  2006  with  several

gime  of  Omer  Al-Bashir.  In  August  2019,  a  new

new  prohibitions  limiting  the  export  of  US  goods,

transitional government was formed, with Abdal-

technologies  and  services  to  Sudan.  Prohibited

la  Hamdouk  appointed  as  prime  minister  of  the

items were contained in the Commerce Control List

country. The transitional government faced chal-

(CCL),  and  included  software,  telecommunication

lenges to meet its new democratic objectives and

equipment and e-governance systems, among other

to balance its authority with that of the military,

technologies.3

which  had  been  in  power  since  independence

In 2017, the US revoked longstanding economic

from British colonisation.

sanctions against Sudan. As a result, US persons are

The  struggle  of  the  transitional  government

able  to  trade,  make  transactions  and  do  business

to  implement  change  was  worsened  by  the  im-

with  individuals  and  entities  in  Sudan.  However,

pact  of  the  pandemic,  in  a  country  already  hard

these  actions  established  the  Bureau  of  Industry

hit  by  sanctions.  These  challenges  included  fail-

and  Security  (BIS)  in  the  US  as  the  sole  licensing

ing educational and health care systems, crippled

agency for export of items to Sudan.4

economic development, a collapsed private bank-

The president of the new transitional government

ing  sector,  unreliable  and  very  sporadic  power

submitted  the  statutorily  required  report  certifying

generation, and a worsening digital divide. In this

that  Sudan  had  not  provided  any  support  for  acts

context,  on  25  October  2021,  a  year  and  a  half

of international terrorism to the US Congress. After

into  the  pandemic,  the  Sudanese  military  led  by

this, the determination regarding Sudan as a state

General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan staged a military

sponsor  of  terrorism  was  rescinded,  effective  14

coup. While  the  pandemic  catalysed  underdevel-

opment in Sudan, this has been incomparable to

1  UNDP. (2020).  Briefing note for countries on the 2020 Human

the  impact  of  US  sanctions  on  the  country.  With

Development Report: Sudan. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/

respect  to  digital  rights,  the  primary  advocacy

files/Country-Profiles/SDN.pdf

goal  remains  mitigating  the  impact  of  sanctions,

2  Morland, A. (2017, 6 October). US ends 20 years of sanctions on

before any meaningful discussion on shifts in digi-

Sudan.  The New Humanitarian. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.

org/news/2017/10/06/us-ends-20-years-sanctions-sudan

tal rights priorities as a result of the pandemic can

3  Bureau of Industry and Security. (2021, 19 January). Implementation

be possible.

in the Export Administration Regulations of the United States’

This  report  discusses  the  impact  of  sanctions

Rescission of Sudan’s Designation as a State Sponsor of

Terrorism.  Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/

on Sudanese citizens. It argues that sanctions are

documents/2021/01/19/2020-29037/implementation-in-the-

an outdated way to force regime change, and that

export-administration-regulations-of-the-united-states-rescission-

of-sudans

instead  of  change  they  end  up  empowering  auto-

4  U.S. Department of State. (2022, 4 February). U.S. Relations with

cratic regimes in their control over citizens.

Sudan. https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-sudan

SUDAN / 195

FIGURE 1.

ICT infrastructure and access in Sudan

Source: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Dashboards/Pages/Digital-Development.aspx

December 2020. Yet, still, technology and software

The absence of e-government systems had also af-

licenses under the CCL are restricted, which means

fected  the  ability  of  the  transitional  government

they require authorisation from the BIS.5

to  manage  the  country’s  resources  and  projects.

Restricted  access  to  ICTs  had  impacted  the  digital

Impact of US technology sanctions on

divide  in  Sudan  as  well.  Although  five  submarine

information and communications technology

cables  pass  through  country,  the  internet  penetra-

(ICT) infrastructure

tion  rate  is  low  compared  to  countries  that  access

Most of the studies reviewed for this report, and in-

the internet through the same cables in South Asia,

terviews conducted with stakeholders, demonstrate

the  Middle  East  and  other  African  countries  in  the

the failure of the sanctions imposed on technology

region. To  put  this  into  perspective,  it  is  estimated

to reach their desired result in most cases. Instead,

that  only  35%  of  the  population  is  covered  by  4G

the  sanctions  resulted  in  citizens  suffering  limited

in Sudan (see Figure 1), compared to 96% in neigh-

access to basic education and health services, and

bouring  Egypt.  The  internet  is  considered  as  the

the country facing economic collapse, with the tran-

main  enabler  to  implement  e-government  services

sitional government not being able to progress in the

and to provide public services to citizens. However,

country’s development. The COVID-19 pandemic has

Sudan’s  E-Government  Development  Index  (EGDI)

also  revealed  the  impact  of  technological  isolation

score for 2020 was 0.3154 and it ranked 170th out of

when the whole country was completely paralysed

193 countries, compared to Egypt with an EGDI score

during the pandemic lockdown.

of 0.5527 and ranked at 111th, and Saudi Arabia with

For  several  months  before  the  military  coup  in

a score of 0.7991 and ranked 43rd.6

October 2021, there had been resentment among the

Sanctions  have  limited  any  plans  for  imple-

civilian  and  military  and  militia  leaders,  with  each

menting  an  e-government  programme  designed  by

blaming the other for the failing economic situation.

ICT  professionals  in  Sudan.  They  have  prevented

the  government  from  forming  relationships  with

5  https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/financial-

sanctions/sanctions-programs-and-country-information/

6  https://publicadministration.un.org/egovkb/en-us/Data/

sudan-and-darfur-sanctions

Country-Information/id/162-Sudan

196  /  Global Information Society Watch

FIGURE 2.

Enablers of and barriers to digital development in Sudan

Source: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Dashboards/Pages/Digital-Development.aspx

large international ICT companies from the US and

Blue  Coat  Systems  that  enabled  the  government

Western  Europe,  and  restricted  access  to  security

to intercept internet traffic. This raised the issue of

software,  discouraging  public  institutions  and  civil

how the software had been sold to Sudan, which had

society organisations from using technologies in the

been under sanctions for decades, empowering the

first place, and leaving the private and banking sec-

old regime to restrict access to information or record

tors vulnerable to cyber attacks.7

private communications.9

Technology  sanctions  also  empowered  the  Na-

According  to  research  also  conducted  in  2014,

tional  Intelligence  and  Security  Services  (NISS)  in

regimes  targeted  by  sanctions  often  exaggerate

their  efforts  to  suppress  activism  –  even  though

the negative effect of sanctions on the economy to

they were intended to put pressure on the regime.

prevent the population from revolting against them.

Activists are restricted from updating their software,

States  have  also  been  found  to  intentionally  de-

leaving  them  exposed  to  surveillance  and  poten-

teriorate  economic  growth  in  order  to  increase  the

tial attack by the highly trained security officers in

economic  hardship  of  the  population  so  that  any

Sudan.  In  2014,  Citizen  Lab  reported  that  that  the

revolt proves costly for citizens. Although the sanc-

NISS had access to Hacking Team’s Remote Control

tions target the elite, due to their strong economic

System (RCS), which allowed it to monitor political

position, their funds hidden around the world, and

activists and detain them. RCS’s capabilities include

international collaborators, it is the local population

the ability to copy files from a computer’s hard disk,

who feel the impact the most.10

record  Skype  calls,  intercept  emails  and  instant

Meanwhile,  research  conducted  by  the  Uni-

messages,  and  read  passwords  typed  into  a  web

versity  of  Oxford  and  the  University  of  Khartoum

browser.  Furthermore,  RCS  can  turn  on  a  device’s

highlighted the significant impact of tech sanctions

webcam and microphone to spy on the target.8

on the content and continuity of academic research

The NISS also had access to ProxySG servers from

and  education,  given  that  they  are  increasingly  re-

cybersecurity  and  network  management  company

liant  on  software,  hardware  and  other  equipment.

As  the  rate  of  technological  innovation  speeds  up,

7  Li, Q., & Abdalla, O. (2014). The E-Government in Sudan: Challenges,

Barriers and Prospects.  Proceedings of the 2014 International

9  Marquis-Boire, M., Anderson, C., Dalek, J., McKune, S., & Scott-

Conference on Global Economy, Commerce and Service Science.

Railton, J. (2013, 9 July). Some Devices Wander by Mistake: Planet

https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/gecss-14/10979

Blue Coat Redux.  The Citizen Lab. https://citizenlab.ca/2013/07/

8  Marczak, B., Guarnieri, C., Marquis-Boire, M., & Scott-Railton,

planet-blue-coat-redux/

J. (2014, 17 February). Mapping Hacking Team’s “Untraceable”

10  Oechslin, M. (2014). Targeting autocrats: Economic sanctions and

Spyware.  The Citizen Lab. https://citizenlab.ca/2014/02/

regime change.  European Journal of Political Economy, 36, 24-40.

mapping-hacking-teams-untraceable-spyware/

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2014.07.003

SUDAN / 197

sustained periods of sanctions left Sudan’s academ-

Digital advocacy challenges in Sudan

ic communities considerably out of date.11

The ICT Syndicate was formed by ICT professionals

The lack of internet connectivity in schools also

during  the  revolution  in  May  2019.  The  Syndicate

meant that the flow of information in and between

aims to save the revolution’s gains as well as enrich

schools  and  the  local  education  administrations,

it, by forming a non-governmental body that urges ci-

states and federal ministry of education was slow.12

vilian authority and advises government institutions.

The growth of tech startups has been stagnating

We  planned  to  conduct  the  first  assembly  meeting

in Sudan, making external and foreign investments

in January 2020, but because of the pandemic lock-

in startups almost impossible. Samir Mohammed is

down, this plan was delayed until October 2020. Due

a member of the ICT Syndicate and the founder of DA-

to  the  lack  of  internet  accessibility  and  availability

TAQ, a data-driven research company. It helps clients

of  technology  tools  –  as  a  consequence  of,  for  ex-

to generate new value from their data sources, and

ample,  limitations  on  licences  for  communications

collects, organises and analyses different sources of

platforms in Sudan – conducting meetings online us-

data in order to provide market insights for clients,

ing Zoom was impossible with members from other

which include small and medium-sized businesses.

states in Sudan. This meant we could not organise

He  commented,  “I  am  struggling  and  looking  for

and  prepare  for  awareness-raising  workshops,  and

workaround plans to buy Power BI software online

had to find alternative ways to secure a Zoom licence

and I cannot access online tools. It is also challeng-

by  using  the  Zoom  accounts  of  international  mem-

ing to get funds to invest in my start-up.”

bers to work online.

According to UNCTAD, the lack of digital innova-

In an interview conducted by the Syndicate with

tion  platforms  in  many  developing  countries  has  a

Ammar  Hamadien,  the  director  general  of  National

significant impact on their development. It results in

Information  Center  during  the  transitional  govern-

using global innovation platforms in the technolog-

ment, Hamadien stated:

ical  innovation  pathways  that  might  not  align  with

local market needs in developing countries. Further-

The US sanctions have had a negative impact on

more, digital enterprises in developing countries will

the  growth  of  digital  services  and  ecosystems.

continuously  miss  opportunities  to  compete  in  the

The  inaccessibility  of  software  tools  and  hard-

global innovation market, thus hindering their ability

ware and the reservation of companies that are

to scale.13

based in the US has forced digital enthusiasts to

Moreover, sanctions lead to women experiencing

turn to open source software, which in many in-

a higher level of economic burden, and also to wom-

cidents posed great cybersecurity vulnerabilities

en’s rights decreasing. They have a negative impact

to  companies  and  end  users.  Therefore,  digital

on  women’s  access  to  economic  and  social  status,

development in Sudan is at the early stages, giv-

and under the country’s traditional patriarchal norms

en the current demographics of the country and

and attitudes, women face violations every day. The

the  large  percentage  of  the  population  that  is

social  and  economic  burden  on  women  increased

still offline.

during the pandemic, especially those with limited

Internet  shutdowns  are  very  common  in  Sudan.

digital  skills.  However,  there  is  simultaneously  an

Throughout the revolution, the military blocked so-

absence of reliable data on digital take-up in Sudan.

cial  media  platforms,  and  blocked  the  internet  for

This lack of statistics impedes not only the visibility

almost  two  months  for  political  reasons  in  2019.

and understanding of the specific challenges faced

The  internet  was  also  blocked  during  the  Certifi-

by women but also the ability to address the “gender

cate of Secondary exams in September 2020 during

digital divide”.14

the  pandemic  to  stop  the  sharing  of  exam  papers

online.15

The  restructuring  of  ICT  institutions  has  also

been  included  in  the  Syndicate’s  advocacy  agen-

11  Bezuidenhout, L., Karrar, O., Lezaun, J., & Nobes, A. (2019).

da. The military has dominated the telecom sector,

Economic sanctions and academia: Overlooked impact and long-

term consequences.  PLOS ONE, 14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.

including  the  revenue  generated  from  telecom  ser-

pone.0222669

vices. In August 2019, as part of institutional reform,

12  UNCTAD. (2019).  Digital Economy Report 2019. Value Creation and

the  Ministry  of  Information  and  Communications

Capture: Implications for Developing Countries. https://unctad.org/

system/files/official-document/der2019_en.pdf

Technology was disbanded, giving the president of

13  Ibid.

14  Drury, A. C., & Peksen, D. (2014). Women and economic statecraft:

The negative impact international economic sanctions visit on

15  SMEX. (2020, 12 November). Military-Controlled Telecom

women.  European Journal of International Relations, 20(2), 463-

Sector and Internet Shutdowns in Sudan. https://smex.org/

490. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066112448200

military-controlled-telecom-sector-and-internet-shutdowns-in-sudan

198  /  Global Information Society Watch

the Sovereignty Council, Abd El-Fatah Elburhan, the

Action steps

authority to govern the Telecommunication and Post

The following actions are recommended for Sudan:

Regulatory Authority. In December 2019, the Syndi-

cate  submitted  memos  to  the  council  to  advise  on

•  The  UN  Security  Council,  the  EU  and  the  US

the necessity of reforming the Ministry of Telecom-

should  investigate  countries  and  US  companies

munication and reforming communications laws so

selling surveillance systems to the NISS and the

that they would be brought in line with digital rights.

military junta, and instead of broad-based restric-

Recently, the Syndicate interviewed the head of

tions, target government leaders, the military and

the  Sudanese  Consumers  Protection  Association,

militias in Sudan with personalised sanctions.

Yassir  Mirghani.  The  association  had  volunteered

•  The US should remove BIS authorisation of items

alongside the lawyers’ union to file a case in court

under the CCL, to facilitate the following:

against  telecom  companies  that  blocked  the  inter-

–  Allow  US  companies  to  support  small-to-

net during the military coup. Mirghani said that the

medium-sized companies, startups, and the

association  was  working  to  save  citizen  rights  and

private  sector  in  general  so  that  they  can

that  it  would  advocate  for  digital  rights  alongside

grow their digital capacity.

citizen rights. Currently, the Syndicate is working to

–  Encourage the use of e-commerce platforms

strengthen partnerships with different associations

in Sudan.

and entities to ensure the digital rights of Sudanese

citizens are in place.

–  Assure that Sudanese citizens have the free-

To conclude, the imposition of US sanctions – es-

dom to access information and academic and

pecially on technology – had a significant impact on

technology resources and platforms without

the underdevelopment of Sudan as a nation, as well

restrictions.

as on civil society and public institutions. Specifical-

–  Encourage Sudanese academic research par-

ly, the sanctioned items on the CCL led to an increase

ticipation globally, and expand the operation

in the digital divide. This includes the lack of access

of the UNESCO office in Sudan.

to technology, a slow uptake and penetration of in-

ternet technologies, the suppression of digital rights

and spaces to express democratic rights, and the in-

creased exposure of citizens and companies to cyber

attacks given their reliance on open source software.

SUDAN / 199

TOGO

THE HUMAN RIGHTS IMPACT OF DIGITAL SURVEILLANCE DURING COVID-19

Togo’s constitution, adopted in 1992 and last re-

AW Free Foundation

Emmanuel Agbenonwossi

vised in 2019, calls for a bicameral legislature, but

http://awfreefoundation.com

the Senate has not been established yet. Members

of the 91-seat National Assembly, which exercises all

legislative powers, were elected for a five-year term

Introduction

in  December  2018,  with  the  Union  pour  la  Répub-

As  the  coronavirus  pandemic  takes  its  terrible  toll

lique (UNIR) party retaining in clear majority.6

on  both  human  life  and  livelihoods,  governments,

UNIR  leader  Faure  Essozimna  Gnassingbé,  the

public  health  authorities,  companies  and  individ-

incumbent 54-year-old president who was re-elected

uals  have  responded  with  extraordinary  measures.

in presidential elections two years later, has been in

To  protect  the  health  of  people,  governments  and

office since 2005 after the death of his father Eyade-

institutions  put  in  place  restrictions  on  movement

ma  Gnassingbe,  who  led  the  country  for  38  years

and mechanisms for tracking and reporting on infec-

after seizing power in a coup in 1967.

tions. In Togo, the pandemic has led policy makers

The  Togolese  constitution  lays  the  foundation

to  expand  public  health  surveillance  by  taking  ad-

for  data  protection  and  explicitly  guarantees  the

vantage  of  new  technologies  to  control  the  spread

protection of personal information, anonymity, and

of the virus.

confidentiality of communications. According to ar-

This report discusses the rights challenges that

ticle  29  of  the  constitution,  “the  State  guarantees

have  emerged  in  the  implementation  of  the  TOGO

the  secrecy  of  correspondence  and  telecommuni-

SAFE  contact  tracing  app1  and  a  travellers’  health

cations. Every citizen has the right to the secrecy of

registry,2 and the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to

his correspondence and of his communications and

determine  the  vulnerable  households  likely  to  re-

telecommunications.”7

ceive state assistance.3

This  article  was  supported  by  the  Data  Pro-

tection  Act  of  29  October  2019,8  which  provides  a

Background

comprehensive framework for the protection of the

Togo  is  a  Sub-Saharan  West  African  country  sand-

individual’s  privacy  and  of  personal  data. This  was

wiched between Ghana to the west, Burkina Faso to

preceded  by  a  right  to  information  law9  passed

the north, Benin to the east and the Atlantic Ocean

by  the  National  Assembly  in  2016,  which  safe-

to the south. It had an estimated population of 8.5

guards freedom of access to public information and

million inhabitants as of 2021,4 with a demographic

documentation.

growth rate of about 2.5%. Over 50% of the popu-

Although  these  laws  are  a  major  step  forward,

lation lives below the poverty line (under USD 1.25

the  absence  of  the  Data  Protection  Commission,10

per day).5 Poverty is strongly linked to under-nutri-

which  is  the  national  independent  authority  re-

tion – food insecurity at household level is prevalent

sponsible  for  upholding  the  fundamental  right  of

across  the  country  and  is  particularly  high  in  the

northern regions.

6  AFP. (2018, 24 December). Togo president’s party wins majority in

parliament: provisional results.  France 24. https://www.france24.

com/en/20181224-togo-presidents-party-wins-majority-parliament-

provisional-results

1  https://www.youtube.com/

7  https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/38025/

watch?v=1RsGOr6R1Po&ab_channel=MPENITTogo

110367/F-1481961433/TGO-38025%20(VERSION%20CONSOLIDEE).

2  https://voyage.gouv.tg

pdf

3  Moustapha, M. (2020, 25 June). Togo : Novissi, un programme de

8  https://www.dataguidance.com/notes/togo-data-protection-

revenu universel de solidarité et un modèle pour l’Afrique.  The

overview

Conversation. https://theconversation.com/togo-novissi-un-

9  Africa Freedom of Information Centre. (2016, 31 March). Togo votes

programme-de-revenu-universel-de-solidarite-et-un-modele-pour-

for freedom of access to information law. https://africafoicentre.

lafrique-140834

org/blog/2016/03/31/togo-votes-for-freedom-of-access-

4  https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/togo/overview#1

to-information-law

5  World Food Programme. (2018).  Togo Transitional ICSP (January

10  Daigle, B. (2021). Data Protection Laws in Africa: A Pan-African

2018-June 2019). https://www.wfp.org/operations/tg01-togo-

Survey and Noted Trends.  Journal of International Commerce and

transitional-icsp-january-2018-june-2019#:~:text=Togo%20is%20

Economics, February. https://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/

classified%20as%20a,1%2C%2025%20per%20day

journals/jice_africa_data_protection_laws.pdf

200  /  Global Information Society Watch

individuals  to  have  their  personal  data  protected,

absence of these regulations, sensitive personal data

leads to violations.

collected by this app about the health and movement

of  a  substantial  number  of  the  population  could  be

Unlawful data-driven measures to mitigate

misused for profiling and mass surveillance even after

the impact of COVID-19

the COVID-19 outbreak is over.

In times of crisis, such as the current COVID-19 pan-

In addition to lacking legislative basis, the app

demic  and  its  economic  and  social  repercussions,

deviates from international best practices for contact

public  governance  matters  more  than  ever.  On  1

tracing apps and fails to comply with data protection

August  2020,  in  its  statement  on  the  reopening  of

standards on the following counts:

the  Gnassingbe  Eyadema  International  Airport,  the

•  Lack  of  consent: The  use  of  the  app  cannot  be

Togolese government urged citizens to download the

considered voluntary after the government’s di-

TOGO  SAFE  app11  to  supplement  the  state’s  efforts

rective. Therefore, there is no scope for people in

in  battling  the  pandemic.  Its  download  was  once

certain circumstances – i.e. travellers and those

pitched as a voluntary step taken by citizens, but a

who want a PCR test – to refuse consent or opt

directive  now  makes  this  compulsory  for  travellers

out.

and those who wish to do a PCR test. The “success”

•  Lack  of  transparency:  Unless  there  is  publicly

of contact tracing apps in developed countries such

available information about what processes and

as France has been cited as a reason for the intro-

techniques are followed for aggregation and an-

duction of this app in Togo.

onymisation  of  the  personal  data  collected  by

The move has raised questions on the efficacy of

the  app,  it  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  justified

the contact tracing app, and of the balancing of the

worry  of  re-identification  of  the  personal  data

right to privacy and the right to health.

collected.

Most epidemiologists and health experts in the

country  have  emphasised  the  importance  of  con-

•  Lack of algorithmic accountability: The terms of

tact  tracing  in  containing  the  speed  at  which  the

service of the app exempt the government from

virus  spreads.  However,  civil  society  organisations

any  liability  arising  out  of  the  misidentification

across  the  globe  and  digital  rights  experts  in Togo

of an individual’s COVID-19 status. This is high-

have argued that effective contact tracing “needs to

ly  problematic,  as  an  individual  can  potentially

engender trust and respect human rights.”12 Frame-

lose their income and freedom of movement with

works  for  contact  tracing  must  be  evidence-based

little recourse in the event of a false positive.

and,  more  importantly,  align  with  constitutional

•  Unauthorised  data  sharing:  There  is  no  prohi-

thresholds for the right to informational privacy.

bition on the sharing of the personal data with

In  this  context,  many  experts  highlighted  the

third  parties  and  the  privacy  policy  of  the  app

violations of the app, and the state’s obligation en-

fails to mention which government departments

trusted by the constitution to preserve the anonymity

will  have  access  to  the  data.  Because  of  this,

of the individual in order to legitimately assert a valid

there exists a risk of sharing such data with law

state  interest  in  the  preservation  of  public  health.

enforcement agencies for punitive purposes.

First, it must have a legitimate basis. Second, it must

pursue a legitimate aim. Third, it should have a ra-

Law versus practice

tional  nexus  to  the  aim.  Fourth,  there  must  not  be

Governance  arrangements  have  played  a  critical

any less restrictive ways to achieve this aim. Fifth, it

role  in  Togo’s  immediate  responses  to  the  pan-

must outweigh the harm caused to the rights holder.

demic,  and  will  continue  to  be  crucial  both  to  the

The TOGO SAFE app failed the very first prong of

recovery and to building a “new normal” once the

the proportionality standard because it does not have

crisis has passed.

a regulatory framework to govern its functioning and

Through  the  Data  Protection  Act,  Togo  intends

to  ensure  procedural  safeguards. While  the  country

to regulate the collection, processing, transmission,

has a data protection law, the absence of an agency

storage, use and protection of personal data.

to uphold the law means that regulations, even if they

The period of sanitary restrictions to contain the

were drafted, cannot be properly implemented. In the

virus  was  a  period  during  which  this  law  revealed

its limits in practice. For example, the collection of

data to control the flow of travellers revealed short-

11  https://aeroportdelome.com/

togo-safe-pour-tous-les-voyageurs-a-destination-du-togo

comings  in  the  context  of  the  management  of  the

12  Adiakpo, S. (2021).  Londa: Droits Numériques et Inclusion au Togo

pandemic.

2020. Paradigm Initiative. https://paradigmhq.org/wp-content/

In this respect, the collection of data by the pub-

uploads/2021/06/Droits-Num%C2%AEriques-et-Inclusion-au-Togo.

pdf

lic authorities is problematic when considering both

TOGO / 201

the principles of necessity and proportionality, while

prohibited,  unless  it  is  expressly  allowed  by  law,  or

data is also not collected with the informed consent

the data subject has consented to the processing.

of data subjects.

The basic requirements for the effectiveness of a

valid legal consent are defined in the Data Protection

Necessity

Act. According to the law, consent must be freely giv-

It  is  appropriate  here  to  ask  questions  about  the

en,  specific,  informed  and  unambiguous.  However,

need for certain personal data to be collected. This

all  government  platforms  in  the  country,  including

is  particularly  the  case  with  respect  to  the  health

the TOGO SAFE app, have no terms and conditions

information  portal  for  travellers  using  Gnassingbé

agreements for the data owner to read and approve.

Eyadema  International  Airport.  The  portal  records

According to the law, for consent to be informed

data that will be used in the COVID-19 screening test

and specific, the data subject must at least be noti-

of travellers. This portal collects the same data for

fied about the controller’s identity, what kind of data

all travellers, whether they are leaving the country

will be processed, how it will be used and the pur-

or entering the country.

pose  of  the  processing  operations,  as  a  safeguard

In this regard, beyond the information requested

against “function creep”.

on the traveller’s civil status and recent destinations,

Where  relevant,  the  controller  has  to  inform

the name of the traveller’s father and mother is also

the  data  subject  about  the  use  of  the  data  for  au-

compulsory,  which  is  unnecessary  information,

tomated  decision  making,  and  about  the  possible

given that the virus has nothing to do with genetic

risks of data transfers in the absence of appropriate

predispositions to ill health. Even if the virus was he-

safeguards. The consent of the data subject must be

reditary, the request of parents’ personal data from

bound  to  one  or  several  specified  purposes  which

travellers is unnecessary.

must  then  be  sufficiently  explained.  If  the  consent

Furthermore,  in  the  context  of  the  collec-

should legitimise the processing of special catego-

tion  of  vaccination  data,  information  on  the

ries of personal data, the information provided to the

traveller’s  profession  is  also  requested,  presents

data subject must expressly refer to this.

risks of non-transparency (what will this information

The consent must be unambiguous, which means

be  used  for?)  and  discrimination  (unemployed  or

it requires either a statement or a clear affirmative

people  from  certain  professions  might  be  discrimi-

act. Consent cannot be implied and must always be

nated against). Such information is subject to abuse.

given  through  an  opt-in,  a  declaration  or  an  active

motion,  so  that  there  is  no  misunderstanding  that

Proportionality

the data subject has consented to the particular pro-

No information is available on the length of time that

cessing of his or her data.

personal  data  collected  regarding  vaccination  will

The law also requires the data subject must be

be  stored  and  whether  it  will  need  to  be  updated

informed about his or her right to withdraw consent

or  stored  indefinitely  for  archiving  purposes  in  the

at any time. The withdrawal must be as easy as giv-

public  interest,  such  as  for  scientific,  historical  re-

ing consent.

search or statistical purposes. Article 53 of the Data

These guarantees could have been offered to the

Protection  Act  offers  guarantees  against  unlimited

people in Togo in accordance with the law, instead of

data retention.

directing them to a PDF version of the Data Protec-

The data collected is also not accessible to data

tion  Act,  which  is  a  large  amount  of  indiscriminate

subjects as prescribed by article 39 of the Data Pro-

information that is difficult for the uninformed public

tection Act. In this regard, there is no possibility of

to read. Directing people to the legislation governing

data subjects accessing this data or modifying it if

data clearly does not guarantee that the provisions

necessary as guaranteed by article 46 of the Act.

of the law are observed in the collection and use of

Of  concern,  our  informal  inquiries  revealed  that

their personal data.

data collected by the government was in fact used to

There is also a certain lack of transparency in the

feed other government databases. We understand that

management  of  information  related  to  vaccination.

the data collected was shared for three types of govern-

To date, there is no open data on the number of vac-

ment services, without further information provided.

cines administered in the country.

Data misappropriation

Failure to regulate the use of artificial

In Togo, all the government agencies that have been

intelligence

collecting people’s data have not set a clearly defined

The  legal  vacuum  on  the  issue  of  artificial  intelli-

agreement for people’s consent. According to the Data

gence (AI) has opened the door to huge disparities

Protection Act, processing personal data is generally

in the development of AI-based solutions during the

202  /  Global Information Society Watch

pandemic  in Togo. When  coronavirus  reached Togo

the door to even more serious abuses. Today, inno-

in March 2020, the government, like those in many

vative solutions are being developed in Togo but are

countries,  responded  with  stay-at-home  orders  to

not  regulated.  A  legal  framework  would  help  miti-

suppress contagion and announced an economic as-

gate the rights violations.

sistance programme to replace lost income. But the

way the country targeted and delivered that aid was

Conclusion

in some ways more tech-centric than others.

The spread of the COVID-19 novel coronavirus and its

The government launched an aid system called

rapid escalation into a pandemic in the early months

Novissi,13 meaning “solidarity” in the local Ewe lan-

of  2020  marked  the  first  truly  major,  widespread

guage,  developed  during  10  intense  days  of  work

global  health  emergency  of  the  information  age.

starting in late March 2020. The payments that the

In Togo there is much interest in privacy given that

government  sent  to  the  population  were  targeted,

the country engaged in collecting massive amounts

and  used  machine-learning  algorithms  to  identify

of personal data of citizens in response to the pan-

signs of poverty in satellite photos, and using mo-

demic. The positive steps taken by the government

bile phone data.

to  mitigate  COVID-19  demonstrate  the  importance

The  turn  to  satellite  and  mobile  phone  data

of regulating data collection and the impact on the

was  driven,  in  part,  by  a  shortage  of  reliable  data

privacy  rights  of  citizens. There  may  be  a  justifica-

on citizens and their needs. The government asked

tion  for  gathering,  storing,  processing  and  sharing

researchers at the University of California at Berke-

personal  data  –  however,  COVID-19  must  not  be  a

ley  who  specialise  in  AI  to  develop  an  alternative.

reason for collecting personal data in a way that the

According  to  the  information  obtained,  the  use

data rights of people are infringed.

of  experts  from  this  university  made  it  possible  to

The lack of clarity in the purpose for collecting a

develop an algorithm that crosses satellite and tele-

large amount of data in the first place, and what hap-

phone data to better target citizens in need.

pens to the collected data once the pandemic is over,

According to our information, the algorithm was

has become an issue for public scrutiny. Therefore,

used  to  determine  the  vulnerable  households  that

to allay any concerns and fears in the minds of the

should  receive  social  assistance.14  The  first  filter

public,  the  onus  is  on  the  government  to  reassure

analysed  top-down  images  of  the  most  precarious

people  that  their  personal  information  will  remain

habitats, the state of roads, the quality of roofs and

confidential and secure from unauthorised access.

the frequency of planting.

Also, to be prepared for any privacy concerns like-

The second filter, which is most problematic, is

ly to arise in the long term and to be response-ready

the  use  of  the  mobile  phone  data  of  citizens.  The

to  face  future  health  crises  similar  to  that  of  COV-

mobile  phone  data  of  citizens  was  collected  from

ID-19,  it  is  crucially  important  for  the  government

the telcos without the consent of the user. Important

to  develop  a  framework  for  emerging  technologies

data such as frequency and duration of calls, amount

that  will  be  readily  available  to  protect  individual

of airtime, etc. was used by the algorithm. This led to

privacy  during  a  pandemic.  It  is  also  critical  that  it

several biases and serious rights violations, because

creates the necessary Data Protection Commission,

the use of mobile phone data  de facto excludes the

and ensures that it has the capacity to do its job. Any

rural  population  that  does  not  use  mobile  phones

national-level  privacy  mechanism  should  provide

because they lack the means to do so. The data also

safeguards and guarantee the protection of privacy

does not indicate the real precariousness of the tar-

of its citizens.

geted populations given that mobile money services

– which was one of the data points collected – are

not present in all rural areas of the country.

Action steps

The issue of the use of AI is unclear in Togo15 and

The following action steps should be considered for

the  absence  of  a  legal  framework  is  likely  to  open

Togo, drawing on the issues discussed in this report.

In the short term:

13  AFD. (2020, 4 September). Togo : Novissi, la solidarité au

•  The  government  should  immediately  create

temps du Covid-19.  AFD. https://www.afd.fr/fr/actualites/

the Data Protection Commission, and provide

togo-novissi-solidarite-covid-19

14  Hervieu, S. (30 September). Intelligence artificielle : au Togo, un

it with the necessary capacity to oversee the

algorithme contre la pauvreté.  L’Express. https://www.lexpress.

proper  implementation  of  the  Data  Protec-

fr/actualite/monde/afrique/intelligence-artificielle-au-togo-un-

tion Act.

algorithme-contre-la-pauvrete_2158963.html

15  Togo First. (2021, 29 August). Quel est l’état de préparation du Togo

•  A dedicated regulatory framework justifying

à l’intelligence artificielle ? https://www.togofirst.com/fr/tic/2908-

and  guiding  the  execution  of  data-driven

8388-quel-est-l-etat-de-preparation-du-togo-a-l-intelligence-

artificielle

measures is also necessary. Apps and other

TOGO / 203

data-driven measures should not be deployed

•  The  government  should  ensure  that  apps

in a vacuum of regulatory guidelines. General

and  other  systems  should  collect,  process

principles can be helpful to avoid and identi-

and store as little data as absolutely neces-

fy abuses by authorities.

sary to fulfil the public health aim. This also

•  The  government  should  ensure  that  when-

means that the purpose has to be clear from

ever  the  health  emergency  has  ended,

the outset.

systems  that  have  been  developed  should

•  The government should also ensure that the

be terminated and personal data should be

development of future data-driven measures

deleted.  Specific  measures  developed  to

should  be  carried  out  with  accountability

manage  the  pandemic  should  be  time-  and

kept in mind. This means that governments

purpose-bound. Safeguards should be put in

should  be  transparent  about  the  policies  in

place to prevent mission creep.

place  and  about  what  type  of  data  is  being

•  Civil  society  organisations  should  work  to

collected,  by  whom,  by  which  means,  and

prevent illegitimate COVID-19-related digital

how  it  is  being  used.  Transparency  is  nec-

surveillance.

essary  for  people  to  understand  how  the

In the medium-to-longer term:

data-driven mechanisms operate, which data

is stored, and why. This enables individuals

•  The  government  should  maintain  a  human

to  make  an  informed  decision  on  whether

rights-based  approach  throughout  the  ap-

they want to use the app or participate in a

plication of technologies that collect or work

data-dependent programme.

with  data.  Responses  have  to  be  non-arbi-

trary,  necessary  and  proportionate,  as  well

•  The  government  should  ensure  that  da-

as non-discriminatory.

ta-driven  initiatives  respect  the  principles

of  privacy  and  data  protection  by  design

•  Solutions  deployed  by  the  government

and  by  default.  Any  initiative  must  support

should not be used as a way to illegitimately

data  anonymisation,  and  use  state-of-the-

target specific groups and individuals or vio-

art  cryptographic  techniques,  among  other

late their fundamental rights.

measures, to secure data and prevent harm

•  The government should make it a fundamen-

in case of leaks or breaches.

tal requirement that future apps or platforms

that  collect  personal  data  have  an  opt-in

clause.  In  addition,  explicit  and  individual

consent is required.

•  The  government  and  stakeholders  should

make sure that data shared through any app

or  systems  should  be  collected  and  used

solely for legitimate public health goals that

must be clearly and specifically described.

204  /  Global Information Society Watch

TUNISIA

DIGITAL INNOVATION RESCUES TUNISIA FROM THE COVID-19

OUTBREAK – BUT INTRODUCES NEW RIGHTS CONCERNS

Digitising prescriptions

iGmena

Hamza Ben Mehrez

Through  the  Tunisia  Community  College  Scholar-

www.igmena.org

ship  Programme  and  the  Tunisia  Undergraduate

Scholarship Programme, nearly 500 Tunisian youth

gained valuable experience in the United States and

Introduction

helped  digitise  prescriptions  in  coordination  with

a  local  COVID-19  task  force.  Through  the  system,

On 10 March 2022, Tunisia had registered 1,017,907

patient  information  is  sent  directly  to  a  doctor’s

COVID-19  cases,  27,874  deaths  and  961,303  peo-

computer  so  the  doctor  can  prescribe  medication

ple  who  had  recovered.1  Although  the  country  has

and  send  the  prescription  directly  to  pharmacy

successfully  contained  the  first  and  second  waves

staff. Pharmacists can then prepare the medication

of  the  virus,  many  citizens,  as  part  of  the  informal

prior to the patients’ arrival so that patients do not

workforce of the country which accounts for 50% of

have to stand in long lines and risk exposure to the

the GDP, have found themselves in situations of eco-

virus while waiting for their medication.4

nomic and social difficulties.2

Technology  has  been  central  in  the  response

Face shields/3D printing technology

to the virus in several government, private sector

The  German  automotive  parts  manufacturer  Kro-

and civil society initiatives. This has included, as

mberg & Schuber developed face shields using 3D

in  many  other  countries,  online  registration  for

printing technology. The company was able to pro-

vaccination. By 8 September 2021, 5,987,855 peo-

duce around 30 masks, all of which were donated to

ple had been registered on the Evax.tn platform,3

the regional hospital in Beja to fight COVID-19.5

which allowed them to book COVID-19 vaccination

appointments.  While  many  of  these  initiatives

Innovation for assessing x-rays

have  brought  health  care  closer  to  citizens,  they

also  raise  potentially  unexplored  rights  issues

There were three separate projects that allowed for

that need further elaboration.

the fast examination of chest x-rays to determine if

a  patient  had  COVID-19.  iCompass,  a  deep  learn-

Technology-based initiatives introduced

ing  startup,  developed  a  platform  using  artificial

during COVID-19

intelligence (AI) for an instant diagnosis of the coro-

navirus from chest x-rays, allowing rapid screening

COVID-19 contact tracing app

for  potential  COVID-19  patients.  Meanwhile,  Tu-

Tunisia launched a contact tracing mobile phone app

nisian  engineers  in  collaboration  with  local  civil

that identifies and alerts users if they have been in

society  organisations  created  a  web-based  plat-

close contact with someone who later reports having

form that scans lung x-rays and evaluates whether

contracted COVID-19. The E7mi (“protect me” in Eng-

patients are likely to be suffering from COVID-19.

lish) application, which is available on Android, was

The technology provides a 90% reliable indication

developed by a Tunisian startup specialised in digi-

of  the  probability  of  infection.  Similarly,  teachers

tal marketing tools for foreign companies. If a user

and students at the Tunisian Engineering and Tech-

tests positive for COVID-19, Tunisia’s Observatory of

nology  Institute  developed  a  web-based  platform

Emerging Diseases contacts other users whose mo-

that  examines  Ct/XR  images  using  AI  with  the

bile phones have been detected close to the infected

support  of  the  German  development  agency  GIZ,

user’s device to notify them of the risk.

the Italian Society of Medical Radiology and tech

4  Belloumi, W., & Cook, C. (2020, 17 June). Supporting COVID-19

1  https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/tunisia

relief efforts in Tunisia.  IREX. https://www.irex.org/success-story/

2  Gallien, M. (2018).  Understanding Informal Economies in North

supporting-covid-19-relief-efforts-tunisia

Africa: From Law and Order to Social Justice.  Friedrich-Ebert-

5  Oxford Business Group. (2020, 9 April). Innovation at the heart of

Stiftung .  https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/14573.pdf

the Covid-19 crisis in Tunisia. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/

3  https://www.evax.tn/index.html

news/innovation-heart-covid-19-crisis-tunisia

TUNISIA / 205

giant IBM.6 This has been in use since mid-March

lockdown  rules.10  The  number  of  PGuard  robots  de-

2021.Thousands  of  lung  x-rays  from  both  healthy

ployed  by  the  ministry  has  not  been  reported.  Some

people and COVID-19 patients have been fed into

citizens  welcomed  the  initiative,  while  others  said

these platforms, allowing AI to learn to recognise

the  robot  “moved  too  slowly”  to  be  effective.  How-

the marks of the virus on the lungs.7

ever,  several  videos  have  since  appeared  on  social

media showing people being stopped by a PGuard. The

“Jasmin”, the intelligent robot

PGuard  robot  can  give  a  preliminary  visual  diagnosis

Since 10 July 2020, the medical staff of Sahloul Uni-

and use its sensors to measure certain things – and one

versity  Hospital  in  the  governorate  of  Sousse  have

will soon be working at a hospital in Tunis. In terms of

been  using  “Jasmin”,  an  intelligent  robot  made  in

rights concerns with robotic policing, Tunisian citizens

Tunisia  by  Enova  Robotics  and  iCompass,  the  first

were satisfied with the invention that would help mini-

in Africa. Jasmin was developed as part of the Safe

mise physical contact between citizens and the police.11.

Tunisia  Challenge,  a  competition  launched  on  17

March 2020 by the Novation City technology park in

New rights challenges and ways of working

Sousse in collaboration with the Ministry of Indus-

The  use  of  technological  innovation  has  been  vital

try and GIZ. The robot reduces and streamlines the

in  Tunisia’s  fight  against  COVID-19  in  the  areas  of

workload  in  the  hospital  by  minimising  the  inter-

infection prevention and control, as well as the main-

actions of medical staff with patients affected with

tenance of essential health services at the community

COVID-19. It uses a triage system to assess patients

level  with  strategies  adapted  to  their  local  context.

arriving at the hospital and directing those suspect-

There are at least three implications of these devel-

ed of having contracted the virus to a COVID-19 unit.

opments,  the  first  concerning  the  intensification  of

Jasmin  is  equipped  with  a  thermographic  camera

digital rights issues with respect to privacy, the sec-

and can measure the temperatures and oxygen lev-

ond concerning the use of robotic policing for the first

els of patients. This means that doctors do not have

time in Tunisia, and the third related to the potential

to  come  into  direct  contact  with  patients  who  may

risks associated with automated health care.

have contracted the virus before they enter care. It

also assists doctors in monitoring the state of health

Rights implications on privacy

of patients after diagnosis.8 Its interaction with pa-

The  use  of  contact  tracing  apps,  which  are  often  im-

tients is user-friendly and is in the Tunisian dialect.9

plemented in partnership with the private sector and

with few privacy safeguards, have raised privacy con-

PGuard ground vehicle

cerns in many countries across the world. In Tunisia,

A  leading  startup  in  robotics  and  AI  called  Enova  Ro-

the contact tracing mobile phone app E7mi was devel-

botics created the PGuard ground vehicle robot, which

oped by the Ministry of Health. It tracks the location of

was acquired by the Ministry of Interior to assist with

citizens registered on the platform and includes other

the enforcement of the country’s lockdown rules. The

personal  data  such  as  phone  numbers  and  national

device includes infrared and thermal cameras, an au-

identity  card  numbers.  It  does  not  have  clauses  that

dio system, GPS, and a sound and light alarm system

state when it will no longer be broadcasting data from

that allows officers to request identification papers and

phones and app stores, nor an indication of a limit for

issue  verbal  warnings  to  those  breaching  COVID-19

the use of data once the app is no longer necessary.

Although  Tunisia  introduced  a  data  protection  bill  in

2018 to comply with the Council of Europe’s Conven-

6  Fusco, R., Grassi, R., Granata, V., Setola, S. V., Grassi, F., Cozzi, D.,

tion for the Protection of Individuals against Automatic

Pecori, B., Izzo, F., & Petrillo, A. (2021). Artificial Intelligence and

Processing of Personal Data, the bill is no longer a pri-

COVID-19 Using Chest CT Scan and Chest X-ray Images: Machine

Learning and Deep Learning Approaches for Diagnosis and

ority for the Tunisian Parliament.12 Any contact tracing

Treatment.  Journal of Personalized Medicine, 11(10). https://doi.

app  should  incorporate  privacy  protection  measures

org/10.3390/jpm11100993

into  the  design  of  services  to  enhance  data  security,

7  AFP. Covid-19: Tunisia researchers use AI, X-rays to create online

virus scan tool.  The Star.  https://www.thestar.com.my/tech/tech-

collection and storage. In Tunisia, companies involved

news/2020/04/18/covid-19-tunisia-researchers-use-ai-x-rays-to-

in the design of these platforms should obtain consent

create-online-virus-scan-tool

8  Web Manager Center. (2020, 31 March). « SAFE TUNISIA »  le nouveau

challenge 100% en ligne de Novation City pour endiguer le COVID-19.

10  Jawad, R. (2020, 3 April). Coronavirus: Tunisia deploys police

http://www.webmanagercenter.com/2020/03/31/447087/

robot on lockdown patrol.  BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/

safe%E2%80%AFtunisia-%E2%80%AF%E2%80%AFle-nouveau-

world-africa-52148639

challenge-100-en-ligne-de-novation-city-pour-endiguer-le-covid-19

11  Ibid.

9  La Press avec TAP. (2020, 10 July). CHU Sahloul: Le Robot tunisien

12  Samaro, D., &. Fatafta, M. (2020, 18 June). COVID-19

«Jasmin», allié de taille dans la lutte contre le Covid-19. La Presse.

contact-tracing apps in MENA: a privacy nightmare .

http://lapresse.tn/67762/chu-sahloul-le-robot-tunisien-jasmin-

Access Now.  https://www.accessnow.org/

allie-de-taille-dans-la-lutte-contre-le-covid-19

covid-19-contact-tracing-apps-in-mena-a-privacy-nightmare

206  /  Global Information Society Watch

before  using  consumer  data  (such  as  social  security

machines will replace doctors with devices that can

numbers, geolocation, or financial and health informa-

diagnose and recommend treatment within hours or

tion) by promoting easy-to-understand privacy notices

maybe minutes. The most obvious risk is that AI sys-

for citizens to access their data in proportion with the

tems will sometimes be wrong, and that patient injury

sensitivity of the data and the nature of its use.13

or other health-care problems may result. If an AI sys-

tem recommends the wrong drug for a patient, fails

Rights implication of robotic policing

to notice a tumour on a radiological scan, or allocates

Several  issues  need  to  be  considered  with  respect

a hospital bed to one patient over another because it

to robotic policing. Worldwide, robotic policing is be-

predicted wrongly which patient would benefit more,

ing taken more seriously, and in 2016 in the United

this would result in avoidable patient harm.16

States a robot charged with explosives was used to

Other risks include the difficulty when fragmented

kill a sniper who had fired into a crowd, killing five

and disorganised health data is spread across various

police officers.14 The primary issue is that laws in Tu-

data systems in health care. Patients can often change

nisia governing public order policing do not address

insurance and health care providers frequently, mak-

the issue of robotic policing.

ing  data  acquisition  and  algorithmic  analysis  of  the

The  introduction  of  the  PGuard  robot  is  not

data a challenge. Regulations also need to be created

immune  to  ethical  concerns  relating  to  the  use  of

to attend to the strict confidentiality and privacy laws

robots for policing. For instance, robots might have

required when dealing with medical records, and pa-

human-like  behaviour,  but  not  human  conscious-

tients need to properly be informed on the use of their

ness,  which  is  important  to  ethical  policing  and

medical data, and provide proper consent for its use.17

decision making during crises. Robots also depend

on the trustworthiness of those who design the al-

Action steps

gorithm  for  their  operation  –  in  this  case  the  state

In  light  of  these  challenges,  the  following  action

and  technical  partners.  There  are  also  concerns

steps are recommended for civil society in Tunisia:

about the impact on future jobs, with the potential

•  Civil society organisations need to understand the

for unemployment in the policing sector to increase.

dangers  of  infringing  privacy  through  algorithmic

Tunisian  police  using  a  service  robot  should  also

bias and how AI tools might affect the people and

always be able to regulate a robot’s autonomy, espe-

communities they serve. Civil society can play a vital

cially in cases when the consequences of the robot’s

role  in  highlighting  these  challenges  and  dangers

actions cannot be totally controlled.

among communities where algorithms are used.

Robotic  policing  systems  need  be  regulated,  and

•  Civil  society  organisations  should  work  with

issues such as the legal responsibilities and liabilities

policy makers in formulating new laws and regu-

of parties addressed. Regulations are vital to deal with

lations designed to govern algorithms that make

the  potentially  serious  ethical  and  operational  chal-

their use fair, accountable and transparent.

lenges raised by the removal of human control. Robotic

policing  requires  the  cooperation  of  human  subjects

•  Civil society should be aware of the potential of

to be effective – but this cooperation is unachievable

robotic policing to create new ethical challenges

without  proper  public  consultation.  Full  transparency

when  implemented  in  communities.  Civil  socie-

and meaningful limitations are crucial when it comes

ty can tackle this challenge by both leading the

to these and other categories of surveillance tools, in-

debate on how the use of AI in robotic policing

cluding  independent  oversight  from  specialised  civil

can minimise the potential risks associated with

society organisations and pressure groups.15

its use, and be at the foreground of pushing for

proper regulations in this regard.

Rights implications of automated health care

•  Civil society must speak out about the potential

In  Tunisia,  which  has  an  advanced  medical  system

dangers  of  automated  health  care.  This  par-

and infrastructure, it is easy to imagine a future where

ticularly  relates  to  the  proper  management  of

medical  data,  and  regulations  that  govern  in-

13  Brennan, M. (2016, 11 August). Mobile App Privacy Considerations .

formed consent for the use of this data.

LexisNexis.  https://www.lexisnexis.com/authorcenter/

the-journal/b/pa/posts/mobile-app-privacy-considerations

14  Joh, E. ( 2016, 16 November). Police Robots Need to Be 16  Nicholson Price, W. (2019, 14 November). Risks and

Regulated to Avoid Potential Risks .   The New York Times.

remedies for artificial intelligence in health care .

https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2016/07/14/

Brookings.  https://www.brookings.edu/research/

what-ethics-should-guide-the-use-of-robots-in-policing/

risks-and-remedies-for-artificial-intelligence-in-health-care.

police-robots-need-to-be-regulated-to-avoid-potential-risks

17  Patel, U. (2020, 22 October). Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: 15  Wareham, M. (2021, 24 March). Don’t Arm Robots in Policing: Proposed

Top Benefits, Risks and Challenges .   TriState Technology. https://

New York City Law a Model for Regulation . Human Rights Watch.

www.tristatetechnology.com/blog/artificial-intelligence-in-

https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/24/dont-arm-robots-policing

healthcare-top-benefits-risks-and-challenges

TUNISIA / 207

TUNISIA

CREATIVE EXPRESSION IN TUNISIA: SURVIVING A PANDEMIC

situation  for  artists  and  the  shrinking  of  cultural

Technoloxia

Yosr Jouini

spaces,  which  was  then  almost  non-existent  com-

www.technoloxiagroup.com

pared to almost two years previously.1 While artists

like everyone else needed to deal with the health cri-

Introduction

sis, the government’s attempts to curb the spread of

the virus tended to rush the restrictions over cultural

In 2020 alone, over 700 cultural activities in Tunisia

activities ahead of other sectors. By 13 March 2020,

were either suspended or cancelled due to the COV-

it had cancelled all cultural and sporting events and

ID-19  pandemic.  Going  digital  offered  alternatives

shut down movie theatres and all other cultural ven-

for both artists and citizens to revitalise the cultur-

ues.  These  measures  were  re-imposed  every  time

al scene and to re-examine the barriers for creative

the country witnessed a surge in the number of re-

freedom  in  the  country.  However,  moving  artistic

corded COVID-19 cases.

performances  online  has  also  raised  questions  on

In response to the pandemic’s repercussions on

whether the internet is a safe place for cultural ex-

the  cultural  scene,  the  Ministry  of  Cultural  Affairs

pression, what social and legal barriers may hinder

launched  the  Fonds  Relance  Culture  (FRC),2  a  cul-

freedom of expression online, and the challenges of

tural recovery fund. The FRC is a mixed endowment poor connectivity and low digital literacy outside of

funded  by  the  private  and  public  sectors  that  cen-

the country’s main economic centres.

tralised  financial  contributions  in  order  to  support

young  artists  and  performers. The  fund  offers  sev-

The context for creative expression

eral forms of aid and support, such as interest-free

In  2011,  an  uprising  in Tunisia  toppled  the  23-year

loans so that cultural activities can continue, and aid

rule of autocratic president Zine el Abidine Ben Ali.

for  unanticipated  expenses  (such  as  ticket  refunds

Since then, citizens have for the most part enjoyed

as a result of cancellations, a drop in revenue, etc.)

unprecedented  political  liberties  and  creative  free-

to help relaunch activities relevant to the redevelop-

doms. However, social taboos, oppressive laws and

ment of the economy of the cultural sector.3

the absence of a supporting cultural policy have sup-

However, cultural actors interviewed for this re-

pressed the culture and arts scene, which continues

port described the state response as insufficient and

to  be  overlooked  as  a  field  worthwhile  for  invest-

criticised it for excluding alternative and less main-

ment, and is a struggling field.

stream forms of cultural expression.

Despite  the  newfound  liberties  following  the

uprising,  endemic  corruption,  socioeconomic  chal-

Going digital: The emergence of new

lenges, security threats as well as political instability

opportunities and old challenges

remain major obstacles for the democratic transition

As  the  proverb  says,  “Necessity  is  the  mother  of

of the country. In an unprecedented move, on 25 July

invention” – and the pandemic and restrictive meas-

2021,  just  over  a  year  into  the  pandemic,  Tunisian

ures  to  contain  it  have  pushed  cultural  actors  to

President-elect  Kais  Said  announced  the  dismissal

launch  new  digital  initiatives  to  revitalise  the  local

of  the  prime  minister,  a  freeze  of  the  elected  par-

cultural scene.

liament,  and  his  rule  by  decree.  The  constitution

One pioneering initiative is “Festival le chapeau”,

adopted in 2014 has also been suspended, with the

a digital festival with live musical performances ini-

exception of two chapters related to rights and free-

tiated by Klink, 4 a Tunisian digital booking platform

doms, including the right to freedom of expression

for artists. The festival allowed the audience to en-

and the freedom of creative expression.

The impact of COVID-19 on the Tunisian

1  Drissi, A. (2021, 27 July). Pandémie et vie culturelle: Les

artistes s’indignent.  La Presse. https://lapresse.tn/104285/

cultural scene

pandemie-et-vie-culturelle-les-artistes-sindignent

In a petition published on social media in July 2021,

2  https://fr.unesco.org/creativity/covid-19/

fonds-relance-culture-de-tunisie

the Union of Dramatic Arts Trades expressed its in-

3  Ibid.

dignation  and  deep  concern  at  the  deteriorating

4  https://klink.tn

208  /  Global Information Society Watch

gage  with  the  performers  and  financially  support

of  the  arts  for  underprivileged  communities  was

them directly. However, the initiative faced challeng-

highlighted.  As  an  organisation  with  an  important

es in finding partners and businesses to sponsor the

presence on the ground and in the local communi-

shows.5

ty,  COVID-19  paralysed  their  work  and  activities,

The consumption of art online and paying for it

especially when funders revoked their funding. The

remains  a  new  concept  for  the  Tunisian  audience.

communities that used to be pillars of their cultural

The  lack  of  respect  for  intellectual  property  and

projects found themselves excluded due to the cur-

unauthorised use of artistic content remains an im-

fews  and  restrictions  imposed  on  cultural  events.

portant  barrier  to  the  sustainability  and  vitality  of

While many organisations have offices in the capital

the local cultural landscape. Tunisia is a member of

or major cities and used to frequently visit artisans

the World Intellectual Property Organization and has

and craftspeople in other regions of the country, the

an arsenal of legal texts protecting intellectual prop-

restrictions on inter-cities travel not only restricted

erty. The country established the Tunisian Copyright

mobility but also revealed the huge connectivity gap

Protection Organization (OTDAV),6 an agency respon-

and digital literacy differences between the econom-

sible  for  overseeing  copyright,  while  the  Tunisian

ic hubs in the country and less financially resourced

Internet  Authority  is  responsible  for  administering

cities and regions. Accessing and affording the inter-

the  .tn  country  code  top-level  domain  name.  How-

net remains a challenge, even for those residing in

ever, the application of the copyright laws remains

the country’s main cities. In other regions, including

limited with regard to the arts and culture field. This

towns near borders, poor telecommunications infra-

is a challenge that artists in the musical and theatri-

structure makes it even more difficult to get online,

cal scene have been facing for years – and it was one

adding  to  the  difficulties  faced  by  older  artisans

that re-emerged during the pandemic as the internet

working  in  the  crafts  sector  in  these  regions  who

became the only medium of distribution for artistic

have little to no computer skills.

performances. In a webinar organised by the OTDAV

Going digital nevertheless opened new opportu-

amid a COVID-19 surge, the participants emphasised

nities for cross-regional partnerships. For instance,

the urgent need to raise awareness among artists of

Collectif  Créatif  has  developed  a  new  online  pro-

their moral and financial rights, as well as the need

ject where art is co-produced by artists of different

to educate different stakeholders including lawyers,

nationalities.

judges and the private sector on the legal particular-

ities of artistic products.7

Cultural expression and creative freedom

An additional option could also be to use alter-

online: From imprisonment to self-censorship

native licences such as Creative Commons licences

Tunisia’s  2014  constitution  and  the  country’s  rati-

that  allow  creators  to  decide  which  rights  they  re-

fication  of  the  central  international  human  rights

serve and which rights they waive, so that users and

instruments guarantee the right to artistic freedom.

other creators use, share, distribute and build upon

Despite such guarantees, artistic freedom is not fully

the original works. These sorts of alternatives offer

upheld and protected in Tunisia. Artists are exposed

wider flexibility for non-traditional artistic products

to  threats,  assaults  and  prosecution.  A  number

such as graffiti and their distribution in digital form.8

of  artists  including  rappers,10  graffiti  artists11  and

visual artists12 have been arrested in the past based

Digital accessibility, a pillar or obstacle

on  vaguely  worded  legal  texts  –  such  as  the  penal

for moving digital

code, which criminalises defamation and the insult

While  moving  online  presented  itself  as  a  new  po-

of  public  officials  –  that  have  served  as  repressive

tential  for  some  artists  and  cultural  groups,  much

tools for political biases. In 2013, rapper Weld el 15

has been lost in the transition. In an interview with

was sentenced to six months suspended imprison-

Amira  Guebsi,  the  executive  manager  of  Collectif

ment for public indecency on the basis of the content

Créatif,9  a  Tunisian  civil  society  organisation,  the

of  a  song,  “El  Boulisya  Kleb”  (translated  as  “Cops

difficulties  faced  in  maintaining  the  social  impact

10  Human Rights Watch. (2013, 5 September). Tunisia: Rappers

Sentenced to Prison. https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/09/05/

5  https://open.spotify.com/episode/62b6OaKmbO8nBdummCU6Vx

tunisia-rappers-sentenced-prison

6  http:/www.otdav.tn

11  France 24. (2012, 27 November). فقراء” تونس ينادون “الغرافيتي

7  https://www.facebook.com/AuServiceDesAuteurs/

ليس جريمة. https://www.france24.com/ar/20121127-تونس-

videos/158008236242972

غرافيتي-فن-رسم-حيطان-زواولة-فقراء-ثورة-حرية-تعبير-توقيف-

8  Rizk, N. (2015). Revolution, Graffiti and Copyright: The Cases

محاكمة-مساند ة

of Egypt and Tunisia.  The African Journal of Information and

12  Franceinfo. (2016, 6 December). Tunisie : deux artistes menacés de

Communication, 16. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC189556

prison. https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/arts-expos/sculpture/

9  https://collectifcreatif.org

tunisie-deux-artistes-menaces-de-prison_3316153.html

TUNISIA / 209

are Dogs”), which he released online.13 The actress

Action steps

in the video clip was also found guilty for the same

The  following  steps  are  necessary  to  revitalise  the

charges and received a fine.

cultural sector in Tunisia:

During  the  pandemic  –  so  far  –  no  artist  has

faced charges in relation to their artistic work and

•  The  state  needs  to  adopt  an  inclusive  cultural

its online diffusion. However, societal taboos often

policy that supports young artists in the sector.

lead to artists self-censoring when posting art for

This needs to promote access to creative goods

larger  audiences  online.  Shahrazed  Amous,  the

and  services  and  take  into  account  different

founder of Klink and “Festival le chapeau”, said in

forms of cultural expression.

an interview that in the choice of media platforms,

•  The state needs to reform oppressive legal texts

their  policy  against  hate  speech  and  harassment

restricting internet freedom and creative expres-

was critical for organisers, with the goal to provide

sion.  Reforms  should  include  clarifying  unclear

a safe space for artists.14

and  vague  provisions  in  the  penal  code  used

arbitrarily  and  disproportionately  to  imprison

Conclusion

artists,  provisions  for  defamation,  and  articles

Although  the  cultural  and  creative  sector  is  one  of

in the telecommunications code, criminal proce-

the fastest-growing economic sectors in the world,

dure code and other texts that silence criticism

in  Tunisia,  it  remains  one  of  the  most  overlooked

of authorities, among others.

sectors for public and private investment. Since the

•  The  private  sector  should  help  make  cultural

pandemic hit, actors in the cultural scene took the in-

activities more accessible as part of its social re-

itiative to revitalise the sector. Going digital became

sponsibilities. Funding is desperately needed to

essential and central to creation, production, distri-

support the creative sector. Among other things,

bution and access to cultural expression. However,

it could support the capacity building of artists

this also introduced new challenges for the creative

who already work online, or who are new to the

sector  such  as  inequalities  in  internet  access  and

internet.

the digital skills gap. In particular, community-based

•  All stakeholders should contribute to the creation

creative work suffered, given the low level of inter-

of an enabling environment for cultural creation

net connectivity at the grassroots. Other challenges

that allows artists to express themselves freely

include the sustainability of cultural activities in the

and not have to resort to self- censorship.

face of unlawful use of artistic material, the lack of

financial compensation for art, and the restriction of

creative  freedom  either  through  repressive  laws  or

societal taboos, which have led in some cases to a

greater level of self-censorship by artists who have

found a wider audience through the internet.

13  Attorney General v. Weld el 15. https://globalfreedomofexpression.

columbia.edu/cases/attorney-general-v-weld-el-15

14  https://open.spotify.com/episode/62b6OaKmbO8nBdummCU6Vx

210  /  Global Information Society Watch

TURKEY

PUSH-BACK AGAINST CIVIL SOCIETY IN THE DIGITAL SPHERE: LAYING

THE FOUNDATIONS FOR FUTURE COLLABORATIONS ONLINE

the government’s pronouncements on the pandemic,

Hun Legal Consultancy

Gürkan Özturan

and its lack of measures to prevent a wider outbreak

www.hunlegal.com

of the virus, were accused of causing panic through

their  social  media  posts.  In  the  first  two  months

of  the  pandemic,  as  the  health  minister’s  daily  an-

nouncements  on  the  country’s  coronavirus  status

Introduction

raised the public’s suspicion, the Ministry of Interior

Over  the  last  two  decades,  digital  platforms  and

announced that over 10,000 social media users had

social media have enabled people to express them-

been  identified  as  spreading  false  information  and

selves  much  more  freely  than  before.  As  a  result,

publishing  “provocative”  posts,2  with  1,105  being

globally, social movements have benefited from the

listed  as  suspects  being  investigated  and  510  de-

new possibilities enabled by these platforms, which

tained for their social media activities.

have  become  useful  spaces  to  advocate  for  social

As  part  of  an  emergency  coronavirus  econom-

change. Governments also took further steps in this

ic  relief  measure,  Turkey  drafted  a  relief  package

period to keep the new social spaces under control.

bill3 which included eight clauses on coercing tech

Turkey  has  been  one  of  the  foremost  countries

companies to submit to requests made by the gov-

in terms of introducing restrictive measures to keep

ernment  on  removing  content,  blocking  access

public  discussion  and  discourse  under  control  on-

to  content  and  users,  revealing  information,  and

line. During the COVID-19 pandemic – which was first

appointing  legal  representatives  to  engage  the

confirmed in the country on 11 March 2020 – there

government – and to do all these within the first 72

were  multiple  new  attempts  to  control  the  digital

hours of the request. If this was not done, the service

space, media and civil society in the country.

provider would have to pay massive monetary fines

or be prepared to have their services blocked.

New restrictions to civil society

In  the  summer  of  2020,  Turkey  also  passed

and the digital sphere

an  amendment  to  Law  No.  5651  (Law  on  the  Reg-

At  the  height  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  Turkey

ulation  of  Broadcasts  via  Internet),  which  is

passed  multiple  laws  in  its  parliament,  with  these

popularly known as the “Social Media Law”.4 With

laws coming into force soon afterwards. In addition

this  amendment,  proposed  changes  that  failed  to

to  legal  changes  through  parliamentary  processes,

pass when they were first put forward in April were

the  country’s  president  announced  its  withdrawal

all accepted. These involved allowing mass surveil-

from the Council of Europe Convention on prevent-

lance of internet users in Turkey, the narrowing of

ing  and  combating  violence  against  women  and

bandwidth,  introducing  sanctions  against  social

domestic violence (more commonly known, ironical-

media  companies  operating  in  the  country  unless

ly, as the Istanbul Convention). These developments

they complied with the orders of the government,

impacted civil society, contributing to the downward

and the removal of content deemed undesirable by

trend  in  rights  and  liberties  in  Turkey,  indexed  by

government officials.

rights groups over the past decade.

In  addition  to  regulating  the  digital  sphere,

During Spring 2020 – the first months of the pan-

Turkey also passed Law No. 7262 (Law on the Pre-

demic – politicians linked to the governing alliance

vention of Financing and Spread of Weapons of Mass

proposed  that  one  of  the  most  important  areas  to

regulate in the country was the sphere of digital plat-

2  Hürriyet Daily News. (2020, 22 May). Turkey detains 510 people for

forms.1 This was to make sure that public discourse

‘provocative’ COVID-19 posts on social media.  Hürriyet Daily News.

remained  under  control  after  journalists  critical  of

https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-detains-510-people-

for-provocative-covid-19-posts-on-social-media-154989

3  Sinclair-Webb, E. (2020, 13 April). Turkey Seeks Power to Control

Social Media.  Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/

1  Bellut, D. (2020, 21 April). Turkey’s Erdogan clamps down further

news/2020/04/13/turkey-seeks-power-control-social-media

on media amid coronavirus crisis.  DW. https://www.dw.com/en/

4  Santora, M. (2020, 29 July). Turkey Passes Law Extending Sweeping

turkeys-erdogan-clamps-down-further-on-media-amid-coronavirus-

Powers Over Social Media.  The New York  Times. https://www.nytimes.

crisis/a-53192898

com/2020/07/29/world/europe/turkey-social-media-control.html

TURKEY / 211

Destruction),  more  popularly  known  as  the  “Civil

reports later became the basis of criticism that ap-

Society Law”.5 This specifically targeted civil society,

peared on social media, which showed an increased

and  would  potentially  block  activities  of  non-gov-

frequency of usage due to extended lockdowns and

ernmental organisations that do not share the same

curfews across the country.

views  as  the  governing  party.  It  exposes  organisa-

The discussions on social media continued with

tions  to  sanctions,  such  as  the  dismissal  of  board

the help of the TMA and other associations that de-

members  and  replacement  of  the  board  by  gov-

manded  more  transparency.  Eventually,  Minister  of

ernment-appointed  trustees,  the  freezing  of  bank

Health  Dr.  Fahrettin  Koca  announced  in  September

accounts, and the suspension of all activities with-

2020 that he had deliberately provided misleading

out having to provide evidence of any illegal activity,

daily statistics to the public,7 shattering the remain-

and even without a court order, putting the activities

ing trust in the government’s ability to manage the

of these civil society actors on hold and preventing

health crisis.

rights movements from operating freely.

Amidst the crisis of a lack of transparency and de-

liberate misinformation supplied by the government,

Online resistance and responses to

the laws that would further limit online information

the pandemic

were  heavily  criticised  by  civil  society,  but  passed

Turkey’s government attempted to control the social

nonetheless.  There  was  strong  reaction  to  amend-

discourse by increasing pressure on civil society, in-

ments  to  the  Social  Media  Law,  which  was  drafted

dependent media and society in general. The legal

in secrecy without informing civil society or even the

amendments  adopted  during  the  pandemic  peri-

opposition  parties  in  the  parliament.  According  to

od aimed at hiding information that was valid from

the new law, service providers or content publishers

people at a crucial time, then subverting the facts by

would no longer only receive access-blocking orders

creating  alternate  explanations  on  statistics,  pros-

for  content  deemed  problematic,  but  also  content

ecuting  critical  publications  and  finally  attempting

removal orders.

to block any social support activities that relied on

The Media Research Association in Turkey mon-

digital advocacy.

itored the law’s impact on media freedom, revealing

In the first days of the pandemic, while there was

that  in  the  first  year  of  the  law’s  implementation,

increasing  unease  regarding  the  uncertainty  of  the

there  were  almost  1,200  news  articles  that  were

coming weeks, for a brief period of time, the govern-

removed.8  When  the  law  was  being  passed,  civil

ment  eased  its  usual  restrictions  and  pressure  on

society networks gathered to advocate against pas-

the media, as it lifted the restrictions on critical and

sage of the law, and communications networks were

independent media participating in press conferenc-

established  on  messaging  platforms.  Furthermore,

es held by the officials. It was crucial for the ministry

various  new  media  channels  published  extensive

to  sustain  proper  crisis  communication  in  order  to

commentary on the law9 to inform the public of the

clear up public concerns and quieten the panic. For a

risks this legislation bore.

long time, this had not been the case, as any critical

The  government’s  claims  justifying  the  Social

question  by  an  independent  journalist  was  met  by

Media Law focused on the spreading of misinforma-

harsh reactions by officials or in some cases phys-

tion and misleading the public with the intention to

ical  intervention  by  security  guards.  However,  the

make profit. These claims were also reflected in the

pandemic changed these restrictive conditions for a

Civil Society Law that was passed in December 2020,

period of time.

increasing the government’s control over civil socie-

This  anomaly  did  not  last  long.  Soon  harsh-

ty and introducing new barriers to their engagement

er  reactions  targeting  critical  speech  were  put  in

online. Civil society would no longer be allowed to

place.  Starting  in  the  first  month  of  the  pandemic,

collect  donations  for  charity  as  part  of  online  soli-

the announcements by the Ministry of Health were

darity campaigns.

contested by the raw data published by the Istanbul

Metropolitan  Municipality,  and  the Turkish  Medical

Association (TMA) recorded the contradictory num-

7  Evrensel. (2020, 30 September). Minister of Health Koca confessed

bers  in  reports  from  their  local  chapters.6  These

to announcing only the number of heavily sick instead of all positive

cases.  Evrensel. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/415385/saglik-

bakani-koca-vaka-sayisinin-degil-hasta-sayisinin-aciklandigini-

5  Yackley, A. J. (2020, 27 December). Turkey tightens government

itiraf-etti

control over civil society groups.  Financial Times. https://www.

8  Media Research Association. (2021).  Impact of Social Media Law

ft.com/content/0c097861-7c02-45c4-88b5-5d0d6af32fb8

on Media Freedom in Turkey Monitoring Report. MEDAR. https://

6  Istanbul Medical Association. (2020, 4 May). Healthcare in Istanbul

medarder.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Impact-of-Social-Media-

during Coronavirus – VII 27 April-3 May Weekly Report. https://

Law-on-Media-Freedom-in-Turkey-Monitoring-Report-Extended-

www.istabip.org.tr/5799-korona-gunlerinde-istanbul-da-saglik-vii-

Research.pdf

27-nisan-3-mayis-haftasi-raporu.html

9  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=py3uZ2dEtgc

212  /  Global Information Society Watch

In response, civil society organisation networks

deep impact of the pandemic restrictions and their

organised a joint campaign on social media against

failure to digitise their daily operations.

the law and continued their public online discussions

However,  this  was  not  the  case  for  everyone.

criticising the government, in doing so creating the

During the pandemic many organisations also initi-

foundation for joint action in the future. Even though

ated online publications and webinars, opening up

the law was passed and came into force, the network

their previously closed-group activities to larger au-

established by the civil society organisations led to

diences. With Meta announcing a change in privacy

intersectional  support  groups  being  formed,  which

terms  for  its  messaging  app  WhatsApp,  which  has

shaped the digital advocacy efforts in the months to

been  popularly  used  by  civil  society  organisations

come.

and  activists  in  Turkey,  a  heated  online  discussion

When, in the beginning of 2021, Turkey’s govern-

advocating  for  migrating  from  WhatsApp  ensued.

ment announced its intention to withdraw from the

Many  organisations,  as  a  result,  moved  their  com-

Istanbul Convention, it also announced that it would

munications networks to other messaging platforms

allow bar associations to be split up, potentially cre-

such as Signal or Telegram,11 causing a mass digital

ating partisan bar associations, and pass an animal

migration like never before.

protection law that would be more harmful for ani-

The  interconnectedness  of  these  civil  society

mals than useful. In this context, the intersectional

publications and webinars initiated during the pan-

communications network that had been created ear-

demic  reached  beyond  the  country’s  borders,  as

lier proved to be useful in multiplying the messages

local  activists  and  researchers  from  Turkey  partici-

of the women’s movement, human rights defenders,

pated in events held in other countries and hosted

animal rights activists and environmentalist groups.

global  speakers,  asking  for  their  opinion  on  local

Over  time,  the  concerns  of  the  women’s  rights

matters.  The  forced  digitisation  of  activists  during

movement  became  mainstreamed  through  digital

the pandemic urged many smaller organisations to

spaces, not only among civil society, but also in the

adapt  their  activities  to  more  digital-friendly  set-

commercial  field.  Big  companies,  including  promi-

tings,  which  in  turn  allowed  them  to  reach  much

nent ones such as Koç Holding and Boyner, openly

wider audiences, multiplying the impact of their ad-

opposed  the  government’s  decision  to  withdraw

vocacy efforts and the dissemination of information.

from the Istanbul Convention,10 marking a milestone

A  significant  example  of  this  kind  was  the  so-

in terms of women’s rights and LGBTIQ movements’

called  Boğaziçi  Resistance,  which  started  in  2016

success in advocacy and awareness raising.

due  to  the  unlawful  appointment  of  a  rector  at

While the latest Civil Society Law would enable

Boğaziçi  University,  bypassing  campus  elections.

the  Ministry  of  Interior  to  conduct  frequent  audits

This  gained  fresh  momentum  in  the  beginning  of

and issue heavy monetary fines and even take steps

2021  as  a  result  of  a  new  rector  being  appointed

that could lead to imprisonment of the board mem-

amidst  curfews  across  the  country.  The  reactions

bers  of  civil  society  organisations,  the  dissolution

to this political move on the country’s most prestig-

of  a  civil  society  organisation,  or  the  appointment

ious university were amplified online, with students

of  trustee  board  members  to  conduct  their  activi-

forming  discussion  networks,  organising  online

ties  in  accordance  with  how  the  ministry  sees  fit,

protests,  issuing  statements,  hosting  exhibitions

many  civil  society  organisations  ceased  to  operate

and webinars, writing op-ed articles, and organising

or  slowed  down  their  activities.  While  some  found

alternative graduation ceremonies, among other ac-

ways  to  cooperate  with  security  officials  to  obtain

tivities coordinated by Boğaziçi Watch.12 Two of the

the necessary permits to conduct their digital advo-

most  significant  activities  conducted  by  Boğaziçi

cacy campaigns, others, including some of the most

Watch  were  the  transnational  solidarity  petition,13

influential  organisations,  simply  stopped  declaring

which  received  almost  5,000  signatures  from  ac-

opinions or making statements.

ademics  around  the  world,  and  the  Judith  Butler

Furthermore,  some  of  the  organisations  con-

lecture,14 which received international attention.

tacted during the drafting of this report emphasised

that,  alongside  the  impact  of  the  law,  their  work

with solidarity networks that were created over the

11  Önder, N. (2021, 8 January). Great migration from WhatsApp to

Telegram has begun.  Marketing Türkiye. https://www.

course  of  years  had  slowed  or  stopped  due  to  the

marketingturkiye.com.tr/haberler/whatsappten-telegrama-buyuk-

goc-basladi

12  https://bogazicinobeti.org

13  Boğaziçi Watch. (2021, 8 January). Support Academic Freedom for

10  Önder, N. (2020, 5 August). Updated list of companies that

Boğaziçi University Students and Faculty. https://docs.google.com/

referred to “Istanbul Convention lets one live”.  Marketing

forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSc_m3StSsK4Zm8Rp54aBMey5fgrCnEfX6_

Türkiye. https://www.marketingturkiye.com.tr/haberler/

cMV5knhIsjaTrBA/viewform

istanbul-sozlesmesi-yasatiri-destekleyen-kuruluslar

14  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IKTb4HHGKI

TURKEY / 213

Another  social  movement  that  stood  out  for  its

and the Freedom Research Association24 shed light

digital action during the pandemic was Red Ribbon

on the salient issues in society.

Istanbul,15  an  HIV/AIDS  activist  association,  which

Online  training  programmes,  awareness-rais-

was initiated digitally in 2016 and had a strong dig-

ing  campaigns  or  even  popular  online  social

ital  presence.  The  association  was  quickly  able  to

events  organised  by  civil  society  organisations

adapt to the new circumstances and not only coor-

with  the  aim  of  contributing  to  society’s  general

dinate advocacy efforts but launch solidarity action

psychosocial  well-being  multiplied  the  impact  of

in supplying medicines to people with HIV/AIDS in

online  activism  and  inspired  more  organisations

Turkey and other European countries, in addition to

to become active digitally. Some of these organi-

frequently  publishing  and  sharing  information  on

sations and social movements have been featured

the hardships experienced by people with HIV/AIDS

on  the  Civil  Society  Hour  programme  on  Dokuz-

during the pandemic, and the possibilities of access-

8TV25  and  some  others  have  received  awards  at

ing treatment.16

the Friedrich Naumann Foundation,26 Turkey’s an-

Aside  from  civil  society  organisations,  Needs

nual Oscar Awards.27

Map,17 which was founded in 2015, launched a sol-

The impact of these activities can be seen in the

idarity  campaign  for  social  support,  using  a  digital

increasing  number  of  applications  for  funding  with

map  that  helped  to  identify  needs  in  communities

the aim of building capacity for digital outreach activ-

across the country. Meanwhile, a socially active rock

ities by smaller civil society organisations in Turkey,

band, Mor ve Ötesi,18 engaged in solidarity concerts

and the applications made to an EU programme for

which were streamed on social media, with the reve-

micro-financing  targeting  civil  society  and  activists

nues being donated to musicians who had lost their

called Sivil Düşün.28

income during the pandemic.19

Action steps

Conclusion

The  following  action  steps  are  recommended  for

Despite  the  negative  developments  in  the  le-

Turkey:

gal  field  with  the  passing  and  implementation  of

•  More  intersectional  activities  should  be  or-

repressive  laws  and  regulations  during  the  pan-

ganised by civil society organisations working

demic,  many  social  movements  and  civil  society

on  various  focal  areas  to  expand  the  scope

organisations increased their digital outreach and

of their work and multiply audiences through

reached new audiences, gained new members and

collaboration.  Despite  good  examples  of  or-

volunteers,  and  increased  their  visibility.  Many

ganisations  reaching  out  to  circles  outside

other  organisations  also  initiated  online  projects

of  their  usual  target  groups,  generally  these

in the form of live-streaming closed-group training

organisations  address  most  of  their  activities

sessions, which enabled them to reach audiences

to  the  same  groups.  In  order  to  break  out  of

previously  out  of  their  physical  reach.  During  this

these  natural  echo  chambers,  wider  outreach

period,  civil  society  organisations  also  initiated

campaigns are needed, possibly with support

joint  programmes  enabling  capacity  building  for

from socially active artists and activist celeb-

civil society and independent media, such as the in-

rities to help multiply the impact of initiatives

dependent media and journalism training sessions

exponentially.

organised  by  the  Journalists  Union  of  Turkey,20

•  An archive on the digital transformation of civil

Media  Research  Association21  and  Media  and  Law

society organisations should be created, promot-

Studies  Association.22  Furthermore,  online  activi-

ing best practices by exemplary organisations.

ties organised by the Checks & Balances Network23

•  Conventions  for  civil  society  organisations  that

had  proven  to  be  useful  before  the  pandemic

should be organised again. They should include

15  https://www.kirmizikurdele.org/about-us

digital  outreach  strategies  to  connect  smaller

16  RedRibbon Istanbul. (2021, 19 November). HIV AIDS Congress.

https://twitter.com/RedRibbonTR/status/1461591029975597056

17  https://www.ihtiyacharitasi.org

18  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RW8n4iXZbA

24  https://oad.org.tr

19  ArtDog Istanbul. (2021, 1 December). Harun Tekin’s ‘ticketed

25  https://www.youtube.com/

online concert experiment’ https://artdogistanbul.com/

playlist?list=PLEDANn0a4CaMFdwoyXg6aIxQPal9RWgss

harun-tekinden-biletli-online-konser-deneyi

26  https://www.freiheit.org/turkey

20  https://tgs.org.tr

27  FNF Turkey. (2021, 1 March). Restart 21: How did it pass,

21  https://medarder.org

remember and celebrate. https://www.freiheit.org/tr/turkiye/

22  https://www.mlsaturkey.com/en/home

yeniden-baslasin-21-nasil-gecti-hatirlayalim-ve-kutlayalim

23  https://www.dengedenetleme.org

28  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDYyF3WNw78

214  /  Global Information Society Watch

organisations  and  individual  activists  to  these

cooperation with civil society actors, independent

processes.

lawyers, academics, rights defenders and tech ex-

•  Global  tech  companies  should  consult  local

perts, to sustain a free and open internet that can

organisations  and  internet  users  when  devel-

inspire positive change in the years to come.

oping  or  amending  their  community  rules  and

•  There need to be more international and trans-

regulations.

national exchange programmes between Turkish

•  Civil  society  organisations  operating  in  Turkey

and  international  civil  society  organisations  to

should increase their lobbying efforts to inspire

learn from international experiences and exam-

positive changes to laws regulating non-govern-

ples.  These  programmes  were  disrupted  due

mental organisations.

to  the  downturn  in  Turkey’s  economy  and  the

•  A digital rights bill should be drafted by the current

plummeting of the Turkish lira against other cur-

alliance of democratic opposition parties, in close

rencies in recent years.

TURKEY / 215

URUGUAY

THE NEED FOR A NEW DATA GOVERNANCE AGENDA BASED ON HUMAN RIGHTS

by the firm GeneXus, which worked with a number

Data and Society Lab (Datysoc)

of other private companies. It was sponsored by the

Ana Karen Tuduri Cairo and Fabrizio Scrollini1

https://datysoc.org

Uruguayan  Agency  for  Electronic  Government  and

the Information and Knowledge Society (Agesic).

Initially this app provided general information on

the pandemic and allowed the user to consult it if they

Introduction

felt they had symptoms of the virus, and to schedule

Uruguay is considered a full democracy and one of

an appointment with a medical service provider.

the  most  progressive  countries  in  Latin  America.

At  that  time,  the  concerns  expressed  by  civil

Nevertheless, the COVID-19 pandemic brought new

society were the lack of a contract with the compa-

challenges and priorities to Uruguayan civil society

nies developing the app, and why GeneXus and its

groups  working  in  this  space.  There  are  three  key

partners were not chosen on the basis of a fair com-

challenges that could be shifting the advocacy land-

petitive public tendering procedure.6

scape:  government  transparency,  including  digital

In  June  2020,  the  government  announced  that  a

surveillance; gender-based violence; and virtual ed-

new version of the coronavirus app would implement a

ucation. Uruguay was hit by the pandemic amidst a

COVID-19 exposure notifications application program-

change of government, which increased the difficul-

ming interface (API)7 developed by Google and Apple.

ties to address these governance challenges

As a consequence, a citizen made a request for

This  report  explores  these  issues,  and  argues

access to public information about the source code

that  the  most  effective  way  to  deal  with  the  multi-

of the application, the companies linked to the de-

ple obstacles they present is to push for a revitalised

velopment of the app, and whether or not a contract

data  governance  agenda  for  the  country  based  on

had  been  signed  with  Google  and  Apple.  However,

human rights.

the  response  received  only  provided  clarity  on  the

link between the Coronavirus UY app and the Salud.

Government transparency

uy  programme,  an  initiative  that  promotes  the  use

Uruguay  has  been  a  consistent  champion  of  open

of  information  and  communications  technologies

government and open data. It ranked second in the

(ICTs) in the health sector.8

Americas in the United Nations Global e-Government

After several consultations, the government con-

Index 2020,2 first in the Regional Open Data Barom-

firmed  to  the  media  that  it  did  not  sign  a  contract

eter 2020,3 and 18th in Transparency International’s

with Google and Apple, and accepted their offer after

Corruption Perceptions Index 2021.4 Uruguay follows

studying their terms and conditions only.9

the lead of the European Union on data protection

Civil  society  nevertheless  warned  the  govern-

and has recently adopted Convention 108 of the Eu-

ment  about  the  privacy  risks  associated  with  the

ropean Council, one the most progressive regulatory

use  of  the  app’s  contact  notification  system,  and

frameworks in the world.5

said that the source code should be published as a

But how did the COVID-19 pandemic affect trans-

guarantee of transparency, allowing it to be audited

parency and privacy?

by any citizen.10

As a first digital response against the pandemic,

the government and a large number of private stake-

6  Red de Gobierno Abierto. (2020, 4 April). Declaración: Transparencia

holders collaborated and developed the first version

y datos abiertos en el contexto de la crisis del Covid-19 en Uruguay.

of the Coronavirus UY app. The app was developed

https://rga.uy/coronavirus

7  https://developers.google.com/android/exposure-notifications/

exposure-notifications-api

8  https://www.gub.uy/agencia-gobierno-electronico-sociedad-

1  Fabrizio Scrollini contributed to this report as an independent

informacion-conocimiento/saluduy

researcher.

9  Carve Media. (2020, 20 July). Uruguay no firmó ningún contrato ni

2  https://www.uruguayxxi.gub.uy/en/news/article/uruguay-climbs-

acuerdo con Apple y Google para utilizar el sistema de alertas para

positions-and-consolidates-itself-as-a-regional-leader-in-e-government

el Covid-19. https://carve850.com.uy/2020/07/20/uruguay-no-

3  https://barometerlac.org/?_year=2020&indicator=ODB

firmo-ningun-contrato-ni-acuerdo-con-apple-y-google-para-utilizar-

4  https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021/index/ury

el-sistema-de-alertas-para-el-covid-19

5  https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes-originales/19030-2012/1

10  Red de Gobierno Abierto. (2020, 4 April). Op. cit.

216  /  Global Information Society Watch

According  to  several  Uruguayan  experts,  the

request  was  rejected  based  on  a  Ministry  of  the  In-

use of any contact tracing technology implies secu-

terior decree which classifies all information related

rity risks. Therefore, it is a basic condition that the

to the materials and supplies used by police officers

contact  notification  system  respects  the  protection

as reserved for reasons of national security. Further,

of personal data and the principles of prior informed

authorities are now systematically denying basic in-

consent and voluntary use.11

formation about the surveillance system.17

There  is  also  a  need  to  better  understand  the

In  2020,  automated  facial  recognition  software

terms and conditions of its use, the legal framework

and  associated  support  services  were  procured

and public rules that allow its use, and any personal

through  a  public  bidding  process,  without  a  legal

data exchange agreements between the government

framework that enables its use.18 After the purchase

and the developers. An evaluation of its impact on

of  the  software,  Budget  Law  No.  19924  introduced

human rights is also needed, including how the digi-

two  articles  that  provide  a  legal  framework  for  the

tal divide limits access to mobile devices.12

creation of a facial identification database for public

According  to  Uruguayan  researchers  from  the

security purposes under the authority of the Ministry

GUIAD  group,13  a  public  debate  on  these  issues  is

of the Interior.19 The database is created by migrating

needed, as well as on whether the government has

the data from the National Directorate of Civil Iden-

the capacity to monitor the app’s evolution.14

tification. It is worrying that these articles give the

Ministry of the Interior discretion as to the possible

The evolution of digital surveillance

uses of the facial identification database.

Digital surveillance is an established practice in Uru-

Civil society has warned that these articles were

guay. In 2020, the Ministry of the Interior acquired the

approved without an analysis of the impact on per-

UCINET software developed by Analytic Technologies

sonal data, nor proper parliamentary discussion. A

that allows the monitoring of networks to track crim-

group of civil society organisations has sent a letter

inal organisations in the country. In June, news broke

to  the  Senate,  asking  that  the  articles  be  removed

that  the  Ministry’s  cybercrime  division  had  identi-

from the draft of the Budget Act.20 Despite the fact

fied 200,000 citizens for online speech that could be

that some legislators took a position to remove the

against  law,  and  2,000  groups  identified  as  mainly

articles or require a court order for the use of that

left-wing  oriented.  Because  of  this,  as  data  seemed

facial  identification  database,  no  agreement  was

difficult  to  check,  the  NGO  OBSERVACOM15  filed  an

reached and the articles were approved.

access to public information request to find out if the

The  only  information  currently  available  on  the

government was monitoring social networks to iden-

potential  uses  of  the  software  is  contained  in  the

tify and eventually prosecute hate speech and other

tender document issued by the Ministry of the Inte-

possible security threats. The request also asked for

rior. There is no regulatory framework or protocol for

clarification on what hate speech and security threats

police use of the software that guarantees the pro-

mean in the context of the digital surveillance.16 The

tection of fundamental human rights.

Datysoc  and  Amnesty  International  Uruguay

proposed the inclusion of this issue in the 5th Open

11  Betarte, G., Campo, J. D., Delgado, A., Ezzatti, P., Forteza, Á.,

González, L., Martín, Á., Muracciole, B., & Ruggia, R. (2020).

Government National Action Plan.21 They are seeking

Desafíos de seguridad y privacidad en el diseño e implementación

a space to discuss transparency in the use of auto-

de soluciones de rastreo de proximidad. PEDECIBA. https://

mated surveillance systems and a space for citizen

www.redgealc.org/site/assets/files/11587/covid_ct_position_

betarteetal-1_1.pdf

participation in the co-regulation of the new surveil-

12  Verrastro, V. (2022, 21 January). Coronavirus.Uy: cinco

lance systems.22

lecciones a casi dos años de pandemia.  Derechos

Digitales. https://www.derechosdigitales.org/17599/

coronavirus-uy-cinco-lecciones-a-casi-dos-anos-de-pandemia

17  Ibid.

13  GUIAD is a group of multidisciplinary experts from the University of the

18  https://www.comprasestatales.gub.uy/consultas/detalle/

Republic – one of the most relevant in the country – created to provide

id/744940

analysis on the COVID-19 crisis. See: https://guiad-covid.github.io

19  https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes/19924-2020

14  Scrollini, F., Baliosian, J., Etcheverry, L., & Moncecchi, G. (2020,

20  Datysoc. (2020, 17 November). Organizaciones de la sociedad civil

26 August). Uruguay’s COVID-19 contact tracing app reveals

y académicas expresan su preocupación por reconocimiento facial

the growing importance of data governance frameworks.  LSE

en el Proyecto de Ley de Presupuesto de Uruguay. https://datysoc.

Latin America and Caribbean Centre. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/

org/2020/11/17/organizaciones-de-la-sociedad-civil-y-academicas-

latamcaribbean/2020/08/26/uruguays-covid-19-contact-tracing-

expresan-su-preocupacion-por-reconocimiento-facial-en-el-

app-reveals-the-growing-importance-of-data-governance-frameworks

proyecto-de-ley-de-presupuesto-de-uruguay

15  https://www.observacom.org

21  Uruguay is a member of the Open Government Partnership (OGP)

16  El Observador. (2021, 7 May). Cómo funciona el ciberpatrullaje

and as a result needs to submit annual plans to advance open

y el reconocimiento facial: la mesa de diálogo solicitada al

government principles in the country. These plans should be agreed

gobierno. https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/como-funciona-

between government and civil society.

el-ciberpatrullaje-y-el-reconocimiento-facial-el-pedido-al-

22  https://quinto-plan.gobiernoabierto.gub.uy/proposals/24-mesas-

gobierno-20215618260

de-dialogo-sobre-uso-de-sistemas-de-vigilancia-automatizada

URUGUAY / 217

At the moment, these technologies are being de-

request made in the context of this report to the Pub-

ployed  without  an  adequate  human  rights-focused

lic Prosecutor’s Office got a reply that there was no

framework. It is a priority to develop this framework,

technical  means  to  fully  identify  femicides  in  their

and  to  discuss  a  moratorium  on  the  use  of  these

database. The lack of clarity in criteria shows the dif-

surveillance  tools  without  more  evidence  on  their

ficulty in assessing the situation in Uruguay.

impact on human rights.

What do we know about gender-based

Gender-based violence

violence online?

Gender-based  violence  escalated  in  Uruguay,  as  in

In 2020, the second national survey on the prevalence

other countries, during the pandemic. According to

of gender-based violence produced some data relat-

data from the second national survey on the preva-

ed to sexual violence through digital media: 2.5% of

lence of gender-based violence carried out in 2019,

women over 15 years of age reported having experi-

eight  out  of  10  Uruguayan  women  said  they  had

enced some type of violence in the digital sphere in

suffered  gender-based  violence  due  to  their  mere

the  last  12  months,  and  5.5%  of  women  aged  15  or

status of being women, and one out of five said they

over declared having experienced some type of digital

had  suffered  gender-based  violence  in  the  last  12

violence by their partner or ex-partner.30

months since the survey was completed.23

Despite  the  survey,  there  is  currently  little  open

Over  the  past  three  years,  calls  about  gen-

data available on gender-based violence online. The

der-based violence to a telephone guidance service

few data points available are marginal and partial and

run by the National Women’s Institute have increased

do not allow an intersectional analysis of the forms

considerably.24 These calls increased during the pan-

of digital violence, their manifestation and particular-

demic, peaking in the first three months of 2020.25

ities, and are not sufficient for evidence-based public

However, formal complaints of gender-based vi-

policy planning. Civil society organisations recognise

olence have not increased over the last three years,

that  it  is  necessary  to  produce  detailed  information

suggesting a disconnect between formal complaints

on digital violence, as well on the multiple types of

and incidents of gender-based violence.26 According

violence identified in Law 19580 on gender-based vi-

to  the  2020  annual  homicide  report  carried  out  by

olence  against  women,31  including  psychological  or

the National Observatory on Violence and Crime of

emotional violence, violence due to prejudice towards

the Ministry of the Interior, in 2020, 37 women were

sexual orientation, economic violence, symbolic vio-

killed, but it is not clear how many of these can be

lence, and obstetric violence.32 However, despite the

categorised  as  femicides.27  In  2021  the  Ministry

list being identified in law, there are no registries or

started a new methodology to count femicides and

databases on these different types of violence. In an

identified 21 cases.28 Nevertheless, the civil society

access to information request made in the context of

website Feminicidio Uruguay recorded 21 femicides

this research, the Public Prosecutor’s Office released

in 2020 and 30 in 2021.29 An access to information

data  showing  that  complaints  of  disclosure  of  inti-

mate  images  without  consent  and  grooming  have

23  Semblat, F., et al. (2020).  Segunda encuesta nacional de prevalencia

increased in the last three years.

sobre violencia basada en género y generaciones. Informe

The reality is that the lack of resources, including

general de resultados. https://www.gub.uy/ministerio-desarrollo-

budget cuts suffered by institutions such as the Min-

social/sites/ministerio-desarrollo-social/files/documentos/

publicaciones/Segunda%20encuesta%C2%A0naciona.pdf

istry of Social Development and the National Women’s

24  Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres. (2021).  Dossier 25 de

Institute,  makes  it  impossible  to  properly  apply  the

Noviembre de 2021: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de

law. In addition, it is essential to create more courts

la Violencia contra las Mujeres. https://www.anep.edu.uy/

sites/default/files/images/2021/noticias/noviembre/211125/

specialised in gender violence that develop process-

DOSSIER%20PARA%20EL%2025%20DE%20NOVIEMBRE%20

es with a comprehensive approach and treatment of

DE%202021-version%20final.pdf

the problem, including attending to online violence.33

25  Demirdjian, S. (2020, 24 June). Violencia de género durante la pandemia:

una puesta a punto de la respuesta del Estado.  la diaria.  https://ladiaria.

com.uy/feminismos/articulo/2020/6/violencia-de-genero-durante-la-

pandemia-una-puesta-a-punto-de-la-respuesta-del-estado

30  Semblat, F., et al. (2020). Op. cit.

26  Ministerio del Interior. (2022, 18 January). Ministerio del Interior

31  https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes/19580-2017

presentó cifras de delitos en 2021. https://www.minterior.gub.uy/

32  Others include: violence due to gender identity or gender expression,

index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9580

sexual violence, labour violence, violence in the educational field,

27  Ministerio del Interior. (2021).  Homicidios 1º de Enero al 31

sexual harassment, street violence in the street, political violence,

de Diciembre (2020 – 2021). https://www.minterior.gub.uy/

media violence, femicideal violence, dfomestic violence, community

observatorio/images/pdf/2022/HC_-__31_de_Diciembre_2021.pdf

violence, institutional violence and racial or ethnic violence.

28  Ministerio  del  Interior.  (2021,  30  November).  Ministerio  del  Interior

33  Fernandéz, L. (2021, 31 July). Se postergan los juzgados

presentó datos sobre violencia doméstica y de género. https://www.

de género: el lado más fino de la piola.  la diaria.

minterior.gub.uy/index.hp?option=com_content&view=article&id=9469

https://ladiaria.com.uy/opinion/articulo/2021/7/

29  https://sites.google.com/view/feminicidiouruguay

se-postergan-los-juzgados-de-genero-el-lado-mas-fino-de-la-piola

218  /  Global Information Society Watch

Finally,  there  are  cultural  issues  that  will  demand

“Ceibal  at  Home”  in  an  effort  to  transform  a  face-to-

a  different  approach.  The  normalisation  of  digital

face  learning  programme  into  a  distance  learning

violence means that it is often not perceived as an in-

solution.38 But despite this effort to provide continuity

fringement of rights by those who suffer it.

to education, it was only partially successful. Aristas –

As  it  is,  the  support  mechanisms  for  victims  of

the first report on educational performance of students

gender-based violence are still in their infancy and

between  third  and  sixth  grade  in  primary  school  –

legal  measures  are  inadequate,  despite  evidence

shows that in the first semester of 2020, 90% of public

suggesting  that  the  pandemic  exacerbated  gen-

school teachers connected with their students through

der-based  violence,  with  a  limited  response  from

the  Ceibal  platform,  while  in  private  schools,  other

government authorities.

platforms were used as often as the Ceibal platform.

The study also found that the use of WhatsApp for ed-

The challenge of ensuring access

ucation was greater in public schools (70%), while in

to education online

private institutions the use of email increased.39

One of the challenges faced in 2020 was to ensure

There  are  several  points  to  consider  about  the

access  to  online  education  for  all.  For  that  reason,

use  of  platforms  such  as  Google  for  Education,

connectivity and internet access have become very

including the interests of the company and the pri-

relevant.

vacy of students and teachers. Currently, according

According  to  a  study  by  the  state-owned  tele-

to statements made by Google’s manager for Latin

communications  firm  Antel,  which  was  accessed

America to  El País, there are 50,000 active users of

by the newspaper  El País, there are 22,716 people

Google educational tools in Uruguay.40

without  internet  access  in  Uruguay,  out  of  a  pop-

With regard to the use of WhatsApp as an official

ulation  of  3,473,727.  The  study  found  that  3,115

means of communication with students, it must be

people in the countryside have access to 2G (LTE)

taken into account that when using the free service,

technology,  390,986  have  access  to  3G  (LTE)  and

data such as the mobile phone number, the operat-

2,693,447  have  access  to  4G  (LTE).34  Coverage  is

ing  system,  information  about  the  networks  used,

therefore  almost  universal,  but  with  different  de-

the  geographical  location  and  profile  details  and

grees of quality and speeds.

statuses of the students and teachers are captured

In  order  to  deal  with  the  demand  for  access  for

by the company.

educational purposes during the pandemic, Plan Cei-

Due to this new reality, children and vulnerable

bal  –  a  government  project  to  ensure  access  to  the

groups are now exposed to various uses of their pri-

internet, devices and education to every school child35

vate data that could harm them, including the use of

– partnered with telecommunications service providers

their digital profiles for commercial purposes.

and the National Education Board (ANEP) to get free

Understanding  this  new  reality  and  generating

internet access for the use of educational tools, or with

an  adequate  framework  to  govern  it  is  a  necessity

discounts  and  exemptions  for  students,  families  and

for Uruguay.

teachers.36 Plan Ceibal, ANEP and the telecommunica-

tions companies Antel, Movistar and Claro also agreed

When copyright gets in the way of education

to promote and ensure access to hybrid education.37

Another  challenge  to  online  education  in  Uruguay

during the pandemic is that most learning materials

A problem with platforms

were covered by copyright law dating back to 1937,

During  the  closure  of  educational  centres  due  to  the

which  does  not  respond  to  the  needs  of  accessing

COVID-19  pandemic,  Plan  Ceibal  and  ANEP  created

knowledge  in  the  digital  age.  The  needs  impact

authors, producers and publishers, as well as educa-

34  Fernandéz, P. (2021, 11 May). Hay 22.716 personas sin internet en

tional and cultural institutions, such as universities,

Uruguay y vale unos US$ 12 millones conectarlas.  El País. https://

libraries and archives.

www.elpais.com.uy/informacion/sociedad/hay-personas-internet-

uruguay-vale-us-millones-conectarlas.html

35  https://www.ceibal.edu.uy/es

38  Ripani, M. F. (2020, 15 July). Ceibal en casa: la experiencia de

36  Montevideo Portal. (2021, 14 April). Plan Ceibal acordó con

Uruguay como ejemplo a nivel mundial.  Plan Ceibal. https://

empresas telefónicas y alumnos se podrán conectar sin gastar

www.ceibal.edu.uy/es/articulo/ceibal-en-casa-la-experiencia-de-

datos. https://www.montevideo.com.uy/Noticias/Plan-Ceibal-

uruguay-como-ejemplo-nivel-mundial

acordo-con-empresas-telefonicas-y-alumnos-se-podran-conectar-

39  Instituto Nacional de Evaluación Educativa. (2021). Aristas 2020.

sin-gastar-datos-uc783631

Primer informe de resultados de tercero y sexto de educación

37  Alonzo Palmer, M. C., & Osorio, C. (2021).  Evaluación de las

primaria. https://www.ineed.edu.uy/aristas-2020-primer-informe-

necesidades de recuperación en el contexto de la pandemia por

de-resultados-de-tercero-y-sexto-de-educacion-primaria.html

Covid-19: Sector educación. SINAE Uruguay & PNUD Uruguay.

40  Malek. M. (2021, 5 August). En Uruguay hay 50.000 usuarios de las

https://www.gub.uy/sistema-nacional-emergencias/sites/

herramientas de Google for Education.  El País.  https://www.elpais.

sistema-nacional-emergencias/files/documentos/publicaciones/

com.uy/vida-actual/uruguay-hay-usuarios-herramientas-google-

PDNA_Aplicacio%CC%81n_EDU_ipm_COVID-19_Uruguay_2021.pdf

for-education.html

URUGUAY / 219

A more flexible system of copyright is required,

While previously being committed to open gov-

based  on  current  international  regulations,  which

ernance,  the  government  has  shown  significant

guarantees  authors  the  effective  exercise  of  their

reticence to valid questions posed about its use of

rights,  while  also  ensuring  the  right  to  education,

surveillance technology. It is also possible to argue

access  to  information,  and  to  culture,  science  and

that  a  new  administration  did  not  have  experience

research.

in some of these topics and had to deal with them

With regard to education, it must recognise the

under  maximum  pressure.  Furthermore,  in  areas

use of digital environments and tools, and educators

such as surveillance, the agenda of the new admin-

as content creators.

istration did not include a focus on transparency and

Specifically, Datysoc believes that the copyright

accountability.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the

law should:

current  administration  is  willing  to  sustain  a  com-

•  Include exceptions for educational, research and

mitment to openness and transparency in these vital

private study purposes that do not involve profit,

areas for human rights and security.

without establishing restrictions on the physical

It  is  not  possible  to  fully  assess  the  impact  of

spaces where these activities are carried out or

the pandemic on gender issues, most notably gen-

restrictions on the type of institution that carries

der-related  violence,  due  to  the  absence  of  data.

them out.

However, insufficient resources have been set aside

to  attend  to  this  deficit,  even  though  more  data  is

•  Guarantee the possibility of carrying out certain

needed to properly enact gender-related laws. At the

acts  of  reproduction,  distribution,  adaptation

same time, support mechanisms and legal remedies

and communication of works, as well as the cre-

for  the  victims  of  gender-based  violence,  including

ation of selections or compilations of readings.

online violence, are inadequate.

•  Expressly clarify that the exceptions apply to on-

While  Uruguayan  public  telecommunications

line teaching and learning activities.

infrastructure  played  a  critical  role  in  supporting

•  Establish a definition of study materials that cov-

government services, including education, the gov-

ers any type of work and is neutral with respect

ernment  response  showed  the  lack  of  a  coherent

to  the  type  of  medium,  format  and  technology.

governance  framework  to  deal  with  the  pandemic.

There should be a specific clarification that this

Dependence  on  global  corporations  to  deliver  key

applies  to  audiovisual  works  and  images  used

services is also a significant vulnerability in terms of

for education purposes.

rights, particularly those of children.

•  Establish  a  generic  exception  that  enables

Action steps

non-consumptive uses of works for research pur-

poses, especially those uses related to text and

The most important next step that needs to be taken

data mining techniques and artificial intelligence

to address these issues is to foster a multistakeholder

procedures.

internet governance agenda that focuses on respect-

ing  human  rights. This  agenda  needs  to  update  the

•  Explicitly enable the circumvention of technolog-

current  data  governance  framework.  In  order  to  do

ical  protection  measures  when  the  exceptions

this. two principles are essential: 1) openness to mul-

operate for purposes of education, research and

tistakeholder work and 2) an intersectional approach.

private study.41

Genuinely  diverse  multistakeholder  groups  are

likely  to  deliver  better  governance  frameworks  in  the

Conclusion: An emerging agenda

Uruguayan setting. An intersectional approach, consid-

for digital rights in Uruguay

ering different forms of social discrimination, will also

In  this  report  we  have  argued  that  government

be needed to ensure governance frameworks and their

transparency, including on digital surveillance, gen-

implementation are transparent, fair and inclusive.

der-based  violence  and  government  services,  were

The  most  progressive  country  in  Latin  America

negatively affected by the COVID-19 disruption.

needs to innovate to walk the talk in the digital age.

41  Datysoc. (2021).  Plataforma abierta sobre flexibilidades

al derecho de autor. Hacia el equilibrio con los derechos

culturales y el interés público en Uruguay. https://datysoc.org/

plataforma-abierta-flexibilidades-al-derecho-de-autor

220  /  Global Information Society Watch

VENEZUELA

TELEWORKING DURING COVID-19 AND THE DEFENCE OF INTERNET FREEDOMS

internet freedoms. For this, the legal framework that

EsLaRed

promotes  teleworking  in  the  country  is  identified,

Sandra L. Benítez U.

www.eslared.net

and the risks that teleworking imply for the defence

of internet rights are analysed. Finally, recommenda-

tions are made on how to improve the situation.

Introduction

Legal framework

In Venezuela, as in most countries, the government

Venezuela  has  a  broad  legal  framework  that  pro-

declared a “state of alarm” in 2020 due to the COV-

tects the rights of workers, guaranteeing the safety

ID-19  pandemic,  as  established  by  Decrees  4160,1

and hygiene of the work environment, among oth-

4198,2  4247,3  42864  and  4361.5  In  these  decrees,

er  labour  protections.  These  rights  are  enshrined

among  other  prevention  measures,  restrictions  on

in  the  Constitution  of  the  Bolivarian  Republic  of

circulation  and  the  suspension  of  activities  in  cer-

Venezuela6  in  articles  87  to  97,  and  in  the  Organ-

tain  areas  or  geographical  zones,  the  suspension

ic  Law  on  Labour  and Workers  (LOTTT).7  Activities

of  school  attendance  and  academic  and  work  ac-

related to the use and management of digital tech-

tivities throughout the national territory, and social

nologies  at  work  are  established  in  the  Organic

distancing  were  implemented.  The  implementation

Law  on  Prevention,  Conditions  and  Work  Environ-

of the measures generated a series of changes that

ment,8 Law on Technology and Innovation,9 Law of

altered the traditional ways of relating, forms of par-

Infogovernment,10  National  Information  Technolo-

ticipation, work models and educational modalities.

gy  Plan,11  Telecommunications  Law,12  Law  Against

Particularly,  there  was  a  widespread  use  of  digital

Hate and for Peaceful Coexistence and Tolerance,13

technologies  in  homes  and  in  companies,  schools

Law  Against  Computer  Crimes,14  and  Law  on  Data

and  universities,  which  turned  to  teleworking,  dis-

Messages  and  Electronic  Signatures.15 These  laws

tance  education  and  online  meetings  as  a  way  to

guarantee,  among  other  rights,  access,  security,

communicate  and  exchange  information.  In  this

privacy and freedom of expression.

context, the government’s measures to manage the

The framework that protects teleworking is nev-

pandemic included attempts to manage information

ertheless the LOTTT, which refers to remote work in

and  communications  through  greater  controls  and

articles 209 to 217, as well as articles 8 and 9 of De-

the use of surveillance technologies.

cree  4160,16 in  which  the  government  first  declared

This report discusses the impact of the pandem-

the  “state  of  alarm”  in  2020.  In  the  international

ic  on  teleworking  in  Venezuela  and  its  effects  on

arena,  the  International  Labour  Organization  (ILO)

1  Pandectas Digital. (2020, 13 March). Decreto N° 4.160, mediante el

cual se decreta el Estado de Alarma en todo el Territorio Nacional.

6  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/

https://pandectasdigital.blogspot.com/2020/03/decreto-n-4160-

constitucion-de-la-republica-bolivariana-de-venezuela-2

mediante-el-cual-se_17.html

7  http://www.onapre.gob.ve/index.php/publicaciones/descargas/

2  Pandectas Digital. (2020, 12 May). Decreto N° 4.198, mediante el

viewcategory/43-ley-organica-del-trabajo-los-trabajadores-y-las-

cual se decreta el Estado de Alarma en todo el Territorio Nacional.

trabajadoras

https://pandectasdigital.blogspot.com/2020/05/decreto-n-4198-

8  https://www.medicinalaboraldevenezuela.com.ve/archivo/

de-fecha-12-de-mayo-de.html

LOPCYMAT.pdf

3  Pandectas Digital. (2020, 10 July). Decreto N° 4.247, mediante el

9  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/ley-organica-de-ciencia-tecnologia-

cual se decreta el Estado de Alarma en todo el Territorio Nacional.

e-innovacion-2

https://pandectasdigital.blogspot.com/2020/07/decreto-n-4247-

10  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/ley-de-infogobierno

mediante-el-cual-se.html

11  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/pueblo-y-gobierno-potencian-

4  Tribunal Supremo de Justicia. (2020, 18 September). Sala

tecnologias-de-informacion

Constitucional del TSJ declaró la constitucionalidad del Decreto del

12  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/ley-organica-de-telecomunicaciones-2

estado de alarma por pandemia del Covid-19. http://www.tsj.gob.

ve/-/sala-constitucional-del-tsj-declaro-la-constitucionalidad-del-

13  https://www.ghm.com.ve/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/41276.pdf

decreto-que-prorroga-estado-de-alarma-por-pandemia-del-covid--1

14  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/ley-especial-contra-los-delitos-

5  Pandectas Digital. (2020, 3 November). Decreto N° 4.361, mediante

informaticos-2

el cual se decreta el Estado de Alarma en todo el Territorio Nacional.

15  http://www.conatel.gob.ve/ley-sobre-mensajes-de-datos-

https://pandectasdigital.blogspot.com/2020/11/decreto-n-4361-

y-firmas-electronicas-2

mediante-el-cual-se.html

16  Pandectas Digital. (2020, 13 March). Op. cit.

VENEZUELA / 221

established  guidelines  and  standards  with  rec-

accumulated inflation that is registered at more than

ommendations  to  follow  during  COVID-1917  that

600%,22 alongside extreme poverty.23

embrace the right to work as a human right.

The  following  sections  elaborate  on  this  social

César  Augusto  Carballo  Mena  says  that  few

dynamic and the changes in priorities that have been

changes have been made to the regulation of tele-

established in the country.

working in Venezuela during the pandemic,18 which

generates  legal  loopholes.  For  this  reason,  the  ILO

New surveillance strategies

recommendations  represent  an  opportunity  to

The government applied new surveillance strategies

strengthen teleworking in the country and promote

on the handling of information during the pandemic,

the defence of internet rights and freedoms.

which  affected  freedom  of  expression  and  privacy.

Information  on  COVID-19  was  considered  a  priority

Analysis of the defence of internet freedoms

resource  and  an  area  for  political  surveillance.  In

in Venezuela

particular,  the  dissemination  of  information  on  so-

Current situation

cial  networks  and  websites  were  monitored  by  the

National  Telecommunications  Commission  (CONA-

Changes  in  labour  and  social  dynamics,  and  the

TEL),  resulting  in  accusations  against  those  who

confinement of people during the pandemic, meant

contradicted the official version on issues related to

that  Venezuelans  needed  to  create  new  ways  of

COVID-19, but also those who criticised the govern-

participating.  This  resulted  in  greater  internet

ment’s management of the pandemic.

consumption and use of digital technologies. How-

The  report  of  the  Third  Cycle  of  the  Universal

ever, this national context was clouded by constant

Periodic Review (UPR)24 for Venezuela in 2022 indi-

electricity  and  internet  failures,19  a  product  of  the

cates  that  since  2018  the  government  has  bought

political,  economic,  social20  and  technological21  cri-

telephone hacking technology from Cellebrite.25 This

sis that exists in the country, and that makes remote

is  evidence  of  the  government’s  efforts  to  monitor,

practices  unviable.  At  the  same  time,  there  were

identify and collect data, which was also done dur-

greater controls of information and communications

ing the pandemic.

by the government.

The shutting down of media critical of the gov-

While the government has tried to make the in-

ernment  and  the  number  of  violations  of  internet

ternet  and  online  information  accessible  to  people

rights increased during the pandemic.

through  various  programmes,  these  programmes

Digital rights advocate David Aragort has point-

are  almost  inaccessible  to  the  population,  due

ed out that “Venezuelan cyberspace is subjected to

to  the  high  costs  of  internet  connectivity,  and  the

a  growing  and  systematic  policy  of  censorship.”26

precarious  purchasing  power  and  low  salaries  of

He  has  also  indicated  that,  during  the  pandemic,

many people in the country. The minimum salary is

in addition to hacking and DDoS attacks, larger at-

USD 2.5 a month, which shows the crisis that Ven-

tacks were used, such as in the case of the Heroes

ezuelans  are  experiencing  and  contrasts  with  the

of Health platform, which on two occasions was the

victim  of  a  combined  phishing  and  DNS  spoofing

attack, through the national telephone company of

17  International Labour Organization. (2020).  Safe return to work:

Guide for employers on COVID-19 prevention. https://www.ilo.

Venezuela (CANTV), and that the government used

org/actemp/publications/WCMS_744033/lang--en/index.htm and troll  and  bot  accounts  to  harass  and  carry  out

International Labour Organization. (2020).  Guía de orientaciones

de Seguridad y Salud en el Trabajo frente a la COVID-19 para

personas empleadoras y trabajadoras del hogar. https://www.ilo.

org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---americas/---ro-lima/documents/

22  Semana. (2021, 23 December). El salario mínimo que regirá en

publication/wcms_755065.pdf

Venezuela para 2022: equivalencia en pesos colombianos.  Semana.

18  Carballo Mena, C. A. (2021).  Régimen jurídico del teletrabajo

https://www.semana.com/mundo/articulo/el-salario-minimo-

forzoso. Venezuela: modelo minimalista e informal.  http://www.

que-regira-en-venezuela-para-2022-esto-equivale-en-pesos-

cielolaboral.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/venezuela_

colombianos/202104

carballo_noticias_cielo_n4_2021.pdf

23  ENCOVI. (2021).  Condiciones de vida de los venezolanos: Entre

19  Rondón, F. (2020, 16 October). Teletrabajo en Venezuela, un reto

emergencia humanitaria y pandemia. https://assets.website-files.

en un país donde falla la luz y el internet.  Voz de América. https://

com/5d14c6a5c4ad42a4e794d0f7/6153ad6fb92e4428cada4fb7_

www.vozdeamerica.com/a/venezuela_teletrabajo-venezuela-fallas-

Presentacion%20ENCOVI%202021%20V1.pdf

internet-servicio-electrico/6068707.html

24  Hoja informativa del EPU Venezuela: Libertad de expresión

20  EsLaRed. (2021).  Marco Económico y Social sobre la calidad

e información. Contribuciones de la sociedad civil

de vida y servicios de internet en Venezuela, durante el año

venezolana al 3er ciclo del EPU.   https://drive.google.com/

2020.  https://eslared.net/sites/default/files/2021-01/

file/d/1PPVSSQ14OzQ_WvZWlz6rZAgWcIgEYuWc/view

MarcoEconomicoySocial.pdf

25  https://cellebrite.com/en/home

21  EsLaRed. (2021).  Marco Tecnológico sobre los servicios de

26  Alcalde, C. (2021, 9 September). Informe: gobierno aumenta

internet y bloqueos comunicacionales en Venezuela, durante

esfuerzos para “controlar” plataformas digitales en Venezuela.  Voz

el año 2020.   https://eslared.net/sites/default/files/2021-01/

de América. https://www.vozdeamerica.com/a/venezuela-informe-

MarcoTecnlogico.pdf

aumenta-controles-plataformas-virtuales-/6219591.html

222  /  Global Information Society Watch

defamation  campaigns  on  social  networks  against

Government efforts to strengthen internet access

dissidents.27  Likewise,  Freedom  House  published  a

In  the  midst  of  this  environment  of  surveillance,  the

report in which it classifies Venezuela as a country

government prioritised internet access and set up new

that does not have internet freedom, ranking it 28th

internet service providers (ISPs), making room for new

out of 100, with 100 being the country that has the

connections  in  different  regions  of  the  country.  This

most internet freedom.28

was due to the need to activate strategic programmes

In investigations carried out by the organisation

in response to the pandemic, such as the Each Fami-

Espacio Publico,29 it was shown that in 2020:

ly  a  School  Programme,31  which  was  promoted  by

•  Eighteen  radio  stations,  four  print  media  and

the government and the United Nations Office for the

two  digital  media  were  closed  by  the  regulator

Coordination  of  Humanitarian  Affairs  (OCHA),32  the

CONATEL.

University  at  Home  Plan,33  and  the  Strengthening  of

•  At  least  965  complaints  of  violations  by  gov-

Spaces to Access the Internet programme.34 However, a

ernment  officials  were  registered,  of  which

study carried out by the Metropolitan University of Ca-

36.89%  involved  intimidation,  19.07%  censor-

racas indicated that the aforementioned programmes

ship,  13.47  restrictions,  9.64%  threats,  8.08%

cannot be applied successfully due to the critical situa-

verbal  harassment,  6.53%  judicial  harassment,

tion of services in the country.35

5.49% aggression, 0.52% aggression and 0.31%

death. The complaints were typified by Espacio

Teleworking in Venezuela

Público.30

Faced with this cluster of situations, teleworking was

•  On at least 66 occasions, blocks or impediments

activated as a contingency modality in the face of the

to  online  access  were  applied  by  the  govern-

need to boost the economy and attend to priority ac-

ment.  Of  the  total  number  of  blocks,  23  were

tivities such as education and health. However, the

applied to digital media and 43 to portals or web

precarious  conditions  of  infrastructure  and  access,

platforms.

alongside  surveillance  and  controls,  affected  its

take-up and prevented its proper functioning. At the

•  On  18  March,  CANTV  blocked  the  website

same  time,  teleworking  was  negatively  affected  by

coronavirusvenezuena.info7,  which  had  been

the violation of internet rights.

launched hours before by the country’s legal and

In this context, the following observations have

democratic  national  assembly,  and  which  was

been made:

created to provide information to citizens about

COVID-19.

•  Jair de Freitas, lawyer and director of LabLabor,36

indicates  that  “when  it  comes  to  telecommut-

•  On  4  June,  CANTV  blocked  access  to  the  plan-

ing,  the  employer  in  Venezuela  must  supply

paisvzla.com8 website, an action that was later

the  work  implements  and  cover  expenses  in

replicated  by  the  private  operators  Digitel  and

terms  of  services  (electricity  and  internet),  as

Movistar.  The  blocking  was  of  the  DNS  type

well as security protocols.” 37 It is important to

and  was  recorded  during  the  live  broadcast  of

an  event  by  Juan  Guaidó,  an  opponent  of  the

government.

31  http://cadafamiliaunaescuela.fundabit.gob.ve/index.php/

programa-tv

•  On  29  March,  the  human  rights  organisations

32  ReliefWeb. (2020, 5 April). Venezuela: Alternativas para la

Venezuelan  Association  for  Alternative  Sex  Ed-

continuidad educativa ante el cierre preventivo de

ucation, the Venezuelan Prison Observatory and

escuelas por el COVID-19 (26 de marzo 2020). https://

reliefweb.int/report/venezuela-bolivarian-republic/

Promedehum  suffered  attacks  on  their  Twitter

venezuela-alternativas-para-la-continuidad-educativa-ante-el

accounts.

33  Venezolana  de Televisión.  (2020,  30  December).  Plan  Universidad

en  Casa  continuará  en  2021  con  sistematización  de  educación  a

•  Thirty-one  people  were  arrested  for  exercising

distancia y método de Flexibilización 7+7 Plus. https://www.vtv.gob.

their right to free expression.

ve/plan-universidad-casa-2021

34  http://fundabit.gob.ve/index.php/espacios/cbit

35  Centro de Derecho Humanos de la Universidad Metropolitana.

(2020).  Informe sobre las afectaciones al derecho a la educación

27  Ibid.

durante la pandemia de COVID-19: Caso de la Universidad

28  Maya, M. J. (2021, 4 October). La libertad de internet retrocede cada

Metropolitana, Venezuela.  https://www.unimet.edu.ve/wp-content/

vez más en Venezuela .   openDemocracy. https://www.

uploads/2020/12/Informe-Derecho-a-la-Educaci%C3%B3n.pdf

opendemocracy.net/es/libertad-internet-retrocede-cada-

36  https://www.lablabor.com.ve

vez-mas-venezuela

37  Davies, V. (2021, 10 February). Tres datos sobre el teletrabajo en

29  Espacio Público. (2021).  Informe 2020: Situación general del

Venezuela que deben ser tomados en cuenta por trabajadores,

derecho a la Libertad de expresión en Venezuela.  https://

empleadores y legisladores.  Contrapunto.  https://contrapunto.

espaciopublico.ong/informe-2020-situacion-general-del-derecho-a-

com/economia/empresas/tres-datos-sobre-el-teletrabajo-en-

la-libertad-de-expresion-en-venezuela

venezuela-que-deben-ser-tomados-en-cuenta-por-trabajadores-

30  Ibid.

empleadores-y-legisladores

VENEZUELA / 223

highlight that in the country there are no clear

multidimensional  crisis  that  the  country  is  going

technical regulations on teleworking, so work-

through  affected  its  development  and  highlighted

ers  are  vulnerable  to  computer  attacks  and

the  vulnerabilities  of  companies  and  workers  in  a

information theft.

cyberspace  exposed  to  computer  crimes  and  con-

•  According to a study carried out by the consult-

trolled by the government. Given this reality, internet

ing  firm  Conestructuras,  the  main  weaknesses

freedoms are compromised and the violation of in-

that  companies  have  when  implementing  tele-

ternet rights increases through telework.

working  in  Venezuela  are  quality  of  services,

Conclusion

lack  of  defined  processes  and  knowledge  of

platforms  for  teleworking,  availability  and  cost

In Venezuela, specific regulations on teleworking are

of  equipment,  poor  quality  of  software  techni-

necessary, since the protection of data and informa-

cians, absence of a remote work culture, lack of

tion of companies and workers is required. It is also

discipline,  lack  of  experience,  employee  work

important to look into the legal aspects relating to

supervision, and computer security issues.38

labour rights that affect the teleworker.44

•  Carlos  López,  support  manager  at  ESET  Ven-

The pandemic promoted teleworking but also ex-

ezuela,  reported  that  “with  teleworking  in

posed the poor preparation of companies who had

Venezuela,  attacks  on  organisations  have  in-

to face issues related to infrastructure and services.

creased  exponentially.”

For  example,  companies  were  unable  to  cover  the

39  He  added  that  this  is

why  “companies  must  protect  access  to  their

costs of the use of the internet from homes, which

data within the office and their employees’ com-

affected  the  performance  of  workers  and  violated

puters, to prevent theft of information and data

the right to work. The lack of skills and experience

in  general.”  López  also  pointed  out  that  com-

among workers on the management and use of re-

panies  must  shield  themselves  to  avoid  risks

mote applications and computer security also needs

of  computer  crimes  during  teleworking,

to be noted.

40  and

stressed the need for data protection measures

In  the  meantime,  the  proliferation  of  computer

and tools such as data encryption systems, vir-

crimes, the lack of technological know-how among

tual private networks (VPNs),

workers  and  the  use  of  vulnerable  applications

41 and antivirus and

security applications.

exposed  companies  to  theft  of  data  and  sensitive

information.

•  On  the  other  hand,  José  Adelino  Pinto,  a  pro-

In  the  international  arena,  Venezuela  is  recog-

fessor  at  UCAB,  indicated  that  teleworkers

nised as a country that violates internet rights and

conducted  94%  of  their  communications  on

freedoms. The deficiency of internet access and ser-

WhatsApp, 92% on institutional emails and 74%

vices  and  social  control  policies  hamper  effective

on video calls.42 All of these are services vulnera-

teleworking and violate internet freedoms.

ble to computer crimes.43

Finally,  while  strategic  government  projects

As  a  summary,  teleworking  during  the  pandemic

attempted  to  expand  access  to  the  internet  dur-

represented an alternative for the private and pub-

ing  the  pandemic,  low  salaries  prevented  access

lic  sectors  to  continue  their  work.  However,  the

to services.

Action steps

The  following  action  steps  are  recommended  for

38  Perdomo,  L.  (2020,  13  August). Teletrabajo  en Venezuela,  entre  la

Venezuela:

gerencia  arcaica  y  servicios  deficientes.   El   Diario.   https://eldiario.

com/2020/08/13/teletrabajo-venezuela-servicios-deficientes

•  State  bodies  in  charge  of  legislation  must  re-

39  Davies, V. (2021, 10 February). Op. cit.

spond to the legal gaps that affect telework in

40  Seguros Venezuela. (2020).  Empresas y colaboradores deben

order to guarantee better conditions for work-

blindarse para evitar riesgos de delitos informáticos en

teletrabajo. https://www.segurosvenezuela.com/wp-content/

ers  and  commitments  from  employers.  In  this

uploads/2020/07/Sin-Adiccion-2do-trimestre-2020.pdf

way, more efficient practices are promoted that

41  EsLaRed. (2020).  Guía de buenas prácticas para saltar el bloqueo

will result in a better performance of the organi-

comunicacional en la web. https://eslared.net/sites/default/

files/2021-01/guia_buenas_practicas_saltar_bloqueo_web.pdf

sations when remote activities are required.

42  El  Ucabista.  (2020,  20  April).  Entre  teletrabajo  y  dificultades

económicas:  así  sobrellevan  las  empresas  venezolanas  crisis  del

COVID-19.  https://elucabista.com/2020/04/20/entre-teletrabajo-

y-dificultades-economicas-asi-sobrellevan-empresas-venezolanas-

44  Legal aspects include those related to mandatory teleworking,

crisis-covid-19

protocols to implement teleworking, ways to access the media,

43  Frequent computer crimes in Venezuela include fraud in commercial

services and information, protocols on the use of resources and

transactions, phishing, catfishing and foreign currency scams,

computer security, and limits on the duration of the working day

among others. See: https://losdescarados.eslared.net

and costs incurred in teleworking.

224  /  Global Information Society Watch

•  The  government  must  implement  policies  that

private  workers  on  the  management  of  digital

encourage  teleworking  in  the  country  and  in-

technologies.  In  this  way,  better  performance

crease accessible alternatives to the internet. In

is  guaranteed  and  computer  crimes  that  affect

addition, it must regulate the use of surveillance

organisations and that put privacy and the infor-

and  control  technologies  when  states  of  alarm

mation  of  individuals  and  organisations  at  risk

are  established.  This  is  particularly  important

can be avoided.

because  the  national  executive  can  authorise

•  The impact of teleworking must be measured

decrees unilaterally during states of alarm, and

to  guarantee  a  more  comprehensive  and  im-

because it is clear that we do not have any real,

partial  vision  of  its  effectiveness,  taking  into

independent democratic powers in the country.

account  its  risks  and  benefits  for  all  sectors.

•  The  government  must  implement  strategies

Hugo  Londoño,  a  private  consultant,  has  de-

to  stabilise  basic  internet  services,  since  the

termined that workers are looking for a hybrid

deficiency  of  internet  services  is  affecting  the

work  environment  where  face-to-face  and

performance of the productive sector, as well as

remote  work  are  combined,  and  employers

education and teleworking.

are  looking  to  minimise  expenses  with  tele-

•  Both the government45 and companies must im-

working.  However,  this  must  include  proper

plement  effective  strategies  to  train  public  and

infrastructure and security.46

45  Pinto, C. (2020, 3 September). Propondrán ideas para legislar en

46  Londoño, H. (2020, 14 May). Resultados de «¿Cómo

materia de teletrabajo en Venezuela.  Globovisión. https://www.

van los teletrabajadores venezolanos?».  Con-

globovision.com/article/propondran-ideas-para-legislar-en-

Café. https://www.con-cafe.com/2020/05/14/

materia-de-teletrabajo-en-venezuela

resultados-de-como-van-los-teletrabajadores-venezolanos

VENEZUELA / 225

ZIMBABWE

INTERNET RIGHTS AND ACCESS CHALLENGES IN ZIMBABWE

DURING COVID-19: WHAT NOW?

up, and some people can no longer afford the exor-

Independent researcher

bitant fares for public transport.

Patience Shawarira

patie.shawarira@gmail.com

Like any developing country faced with a massive

economic meltdown and high inflation rates, before

COVID-19 Zimbabweans had been preoccupied with

ensuring the day-to- day livelihoods of their families

Introduction

and putting food on the table. As in other parts of

This  report  focuses  on  Zimbabwe,  where  I  am  cur-

the world, they were drawn to digital platforms for

rently based. It draws on interviews conducted with

news  on  the  pandemic,  which  has  wreaked  havoc

representatives of media civil society organisations

in  most  people’s  lives,  with  numerous  deaths  and

such as the Zimbabwe chapter of the Media Institute

illnesses  being  recorded  since  its  onset.  Digital

of  Southern  Africa  (MISA  Zimbabwe),1  Digital  Soci-

platforms  such  as  Facebook  and  Twitter  replaced

ety  Africa2  and  Magamba  Network,3  among  others.

face-to-face interactions as people resorted to shar-

These  organisations  are  working  on  digital  rights

ing information and news via these platforms. This

and digital technology-related issues, and provided

was  necessitated  by  lockdown  restrictions  which

me with valuable insights on new digital rights advo-

saw people spending months indoors and some hav-

cacy priorities.

ing to move their workspaces to their homes, start

Civil society organisations doing advocacy work

conducting business online, and rely on the internet

on  digital  rights  and  digital  technology-related  is-

for education.

sues  in  Zimbabwe,  like  their  counterparts  in  other

countries  in  the  world,  have  had  to  shift  their  ad-

Moving online introduces new challenges,

vocacy  work  online  to  ensure  continuity  in  their

but more awareness of digital rights

campaigns  during  the  COVID-19  pandemic.  Yet  for

Prior to the COVID-19 outbreak, civil society organ-

many  this  mediated  form  of  communication  intro-

isations  mainly  conducted  advocacy  work  through

duced difficulties, such as not being able to speak

face-to-face  seminars,  workshops  and  field  visits.

to constituencies who did not have effective internet

They also engaged the media in face-to-face discus-

access. At the same time, the pandemic made many

sions  on  television  and  radio.  However,  due  to  the

civil society organisations more aware of the impor-

pandemic, communication was heavily mediated by

tance  of  digital  rights  –  an  awareness  that  digital

online communication tools such as Zoom, Microsoft

rights actors should leverage in future advocacy for

Teams and Google Meet.

a free internet in Zimbabwe.

MISA  Zimbabwe’s  legal  and  ICT  officer,  Nom-

Background

pilo  Simanje,  noted  that  this  continuity  for

campaigns was important, but was also limited by

Zimbabweans rejoiced when Emmerson Mnangagwa

the digital divide:

succeeded  former  president  Robert  Mugabe,  who

was  forced  out  of  office  in  late  2017.  The  thinking

Civil  society  organisations  had  to  include  on-

was that the new president would deliver on his re-

line-related advocacy strategies so as to continue

frain that the country was now “open for business”.4

with  their  implementation,  since  physical  meet-

But  frustration  has  risen  over  the  lack  of  im-

ings  were  banned  or  restricted.  This  included

provement in the collapsed economy. Zimbabweans

learning  and  adapting  to  new  tools  for  commu-

have sunk into poverty as food prices continue to go

nication, new methods for awareness raising and

also  exploring  safer  platforms.  The  challenge,

however,  was  centred  on  reaching  the  target-

1  https://zimbabwe.misa.org

ed audience due to the digital divide and issues

2  https://www.digitalsociety.africa

around digital literacy and affordability of data.

3  http://magambanetwork.com

4  Al Jazeera. (2019, 18 January). Zimbabwe imposes

Simanje said that this reliance on the internet fore-

internet shutdown amid crackdown on protests.  Al

grounded  problems  such  as  affordable  access  and

Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/1/18/

zimbabwe-imposes-internet-shutdown-amid-crackdown-on-protests

disinformation:

226  /  Global Information Society Watch

The  advent  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic  resulted

anonymous  accounts  that  support  the  govern-

in  an  increased  reliance  on  the  internet  space

ment each time we have published stories that

for  access  to  information,  for  work  purposes,  for

make the authorities uncomfortable.5

e-learning  purposes,  among  other  uses;  hence

A report from Human Rights Watch notes that Zim-

several digital rights issues had to be prioritised,

babwe has been one of the worst offenders when it

which include internet affordability and also issues

comes to using COVID-19 as an excuse to crack down

relating to misinformation and disinformation.

on journalists.6 On 20 July 2020, Hopewell Chin’ono,

She further noted that the right to privacy online be-

who  had  voiced  support  for  anti-government  pro-

came a critical priority for digital rights, as did the

tests online, was charged with inciting violence and

need for internet users to be aware of digital safety

communicating  falsehoods.  MISA  Zimbabwe  direc-

and security issues.

tor Tabani Moyo commented at the time on the arrest

However, she said this new advocacy landscape

of Chin’ono, saying his arrest was intended to intim-

also highlighted the importance of digital rights and

idate citizens and journalists in Zimbabwe, calling it

why all civil society organisations should prioritise

a “dangerous trend”:

advocacy  related  to  access  to  information  online,

This immediate case points to a clear case of try-

free expression and the right to privacy.

ing to effect a chilling effect on the media. How

Human rights violations

do you come to a conclusion that Hopewell has

violated any law of the country for providing an

The  Zimbabwean  government  is  constitutionally

opinion  on  a  video  clip  that  has  thousands  of

bound to uphold people’s rights to free expression

people communicating on it? Why, why arriving

and  access  to  information.  However,  with  the  ad-

at Hopewell, a journalist for that matter? So, it is

vent  of  the  pandemic,  new  challenges  arose,  such

an assault on the media. Secondly, it is meant to

as  those  that  emerged  after  the  government  was

send chilling effect not only to the media, but to

exposed  to  an  increase  in  public  scrutiny  online,

the users of the online spaces. This is a danger-

and  the  ruling  Zimbabwe  African  National  Union  –

ous trend we are seeing.7

Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) government drew a lot of

criticism for failing to revive the economy.

Mugari  noted  the  shift  in  prioritising  digital  rights

In response, the government came up with sub-

among civil society organisations as they rallied to-

versive measures to stifle dissent on digital platforms.

gether  and  spoke  strongly  against  the  harassment

Simanje  noted  that  the  government’s  response

and  intimidation  of  online  journalists  and  political

to disinformation had a negative impact on freedom

activists. However, he also noted that journalists had

of expression:

to practise self-censorship with regard to the stories

they could publish.

It is critical to note also that there were emergen-

cy laws that were put in place for purposes of the

Addressing the digital divide

COVID-19 pandemic which affected free expression,

According to Mugari, the scope of work for civil so-

especially laws on the criminalisation of fake news.

ciety organisations involved in digital rights activism

Other  measures  included  arresting  journalists  who

in  Zimbabwe  shifted  as  they  now  had  to  intensify

shared opposing views to the ruling party online, as

advocacy on cyber laws and bridging the digital di-

well as using pro-ZANU-PF party agents called  Var-

vide. People in rural areas were left behind as most

akashi to stifle dissent.

of them did not have smartphones and data that al-

According  to  Tawanda  Mugari  from  Digital  So-

lowed them to connect to the internet.

ciety  Africa,  Varakashi  are  “pro-ZANU-PF  agents”,

or  people  who  use  social  media  platforms  such  as

Twitter to bully people who are anti-ZANU-PF and are

vocal about it online.

5  Maukonen, R. (2021, 17 March). In Zimbabwe, one year of COVID-19

Like  other  measures  to  limit  freedoms,  the

saw surge in harassment of free press.  International Press Institute.

https://ipi.media/in-zimbabwe-one-year-of-covid-19-saw-surge-in-

state-sanctioned  cyber  bullying  of  those  with  dis-

harassment-of-free-press

sident views stifles freedom of expression and can

6  Mavhunga, C. (2021, 11 February). Zimbabwe Among African

have a long-term impact on citizens’ right to express

Countries Using COVID-19 to Crack Down on Journalists, Report

Finds.  VOA. https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_zimbabwe-among-

themselves freely online. As one journalist told the

african-countries-using-covid-19-crack-down-journalists-report-

International Press Institute:

finds/6201904.html

7  Mavhunga, C. (2021, 9 January). Zimbabwe Police Arrest Journalist

I have had subtle threats directed at me on so-

for Third Time in 6 Months.  VOA. https://www.voanews.com/a/

cial  media  by  some  government  officials  and

press-freedom_zimbabwe-police-arrest-journalist-third-time-6-

months/6200541.html

ZIMBABWE / 227

It is important to note that Zimbabwe has failed

during  fuel  price  hike  protests.  For  the  first  time,

to  invest  effectively  in  infrastructure  that  supports

Zimbabweans had organised a protest using social

digital technologies. Electricity, for example, is still a

media against the increase in fuel prices.

challenge in rural areas and in urban areas, particu-

Upon realising the power that digital platforms

larly in high-density suburbs, which affects internet

and  especially WhatsApp  were  having,  the  govern-

connectivity.

ment saw fit to come up with counter-measures to

In  a  2021  report,  Paradigm  Initiative  notes  the

the  protests,  one  of  which  was  to  demand  a  total

high  cost  of  data  in  Zimbabwe,  which  currently

internet  shutdown.  This  meant  that  Zimbabweans

stands at USD 4 for 1 GB mobile prepaid broadband.

were  unable  to  effectively  plan  and  roll  out  their

This cost means the majority of Zimbabweans cannot

protests using WhatsApp and online platforms such

afford it. MISA Zimbabwe notes that the prohibitive

as Facebook and Twitter. Critics said this was an at-

high cost of data is discriminatory and infringes on

tempt to hide growing reports of a violent crackdown

people’s right to access information provided for by

on the protests.11

the constitution and the African Declaration on Inter-

In February 2022, internet service access was re-

net Rights and Freedoms.8

stricted during a Citizens Coalition for Change (CCC)

To  try  to  address  this  issue,  Simanje  said  that

rally held at Zimbabwe Grounds in Highfields, one of

MISA  Zimbabwe  held  digital  rights  and  literacy

Harare’s oldest suburbs. NetBlocks established that

campaigns  during  the  pandemic,  which  included

the  internet  was  throttled,  limiting  live  streaming

awareness-raising campaigns on cybersecurity and

and access to online content. Reports indicate that

on the data protection bill.9

multiple media houses failed to broadcast the rally

It also launched Information Hubs (or Wi-Fi hot-

in real time because of this.12

spots)10 in urban and rural areas, namely in Gweru,

Nyasha  Mukapiko  from  Magamba  said  that  by

which  is  a  town  in  the  Midlands  province;  Lupane,

throttling  the  internet  during  the  CCC  rally,  inter-

which is a rural area in Matabeleland North; Gwan-

net service providers infringed on people’s right to

da,  located  in  rural  areas  in  Matabeleland  South;

access  information  online.  Simanje  noted  that  the

and  Nyanga,  a  town  in  Manicaland  province.  This

Zimbabwean government might continue to use the

was  in  an  effort  to  increase  access  to  information

law as a weapon to limit the exercise of rights online.

and knowledge through internet services.

Meanwhile,  Lukman  added  that  some  jurisdic-

tions might also want to use the increasing interest

Implications of these changes

in  digital  inclusion,  particularly  internet  access,  to

Some  digital  rights  activists,  such  as  Lukman  Ad-

make excessive profits by introducing new taxes and

ams, viewed the emphasis on digital rights advocacy

charges.

priorities  as  a  positive  development.  Adams  said

this  will  translate  into  a  wider  appreciation  of  the

Conclusion

importance of digital technologies and digital rights

This report identified a rising interest in digital rights

advocacy, which will mean that digital inclusion can

issues in Zimbabwe, following the need for people

be achieved for the betterment of society.

to move online during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is

However,  he  added  that  in  jurisdictions  where

likely that digital rights will continue to be a priority

the  government  interfered  in  the  digital  rights  of

going into the future, as more and more social and

its  citizens,  the  implications  might  be  devastating,

economic activities move online. There is therefore

since they are likely to be victims of internet shut-

a  simultaneous  need  to  ensure  that  no  one  is  left

downs and unlawful surveillance.

behind and for priority attention to be given to the

His  caution  is  not  unfounded.  In  Zimbabwe,  a

digital divide. This will take a lot of work and com-

total internet shutdown was witnessed in July 2019

mitment  from  civil  society  organisations,  working

together  with  the  government  and  internet  service

providers.  Laws  that  are  friendly  to  online  users,

8  Matimbe, T. (2021).  Londa: Zimbabwe Digital Rights and Inclusion

journalists and political activists need to be strong-

2020 Report. Paradigm Initiative. https://paradigmhq.org/wp-

ly advocated for to avoid a narrowing of the online

content/uploads/2021/05/lr-Zimbabwe-Digital-Rights-Inclusion-

space, in the process infringing on people’s rights to

2020-Report.pdf

9  New Zimbabwe. (2020, 22 March). MISA-Zimbabwe launches free

access information and to freely express themselves.

internet WiFi to marginalised communities.  New Zimbabwe. https://

www.newzimbabwe.com/misa-zimbabwe-launches-free-internet-

wifi-to-marginalised-communities

10  Media Institute of Southern Africa Zimbabwe. (2020).  An Analysis

11  Al Jazeera. (2019, 18 January). Op. cit.

of Social Media Use in the SADC Region: 2014-2020. https://data.

12  Pindula News. (2022, 20 February). Internet Slowdown Limits

misa.org/entity/4sgzarl1vce?file=1624258998903w3z3ke5tz37.

Coverage Of CCC Rally.  Pindula. https://zero.pindula.co.zw/

pdf&page=6

internet-slowdown-limits-coverage-of-ccc-rally

228  /  Global Information Society Watch

Action steps

•  They  should  prioritise  advocacy  related  to  ac-

Below are some action steps for consideration by civ-

cessing information online, free expression and

il society organisations working in Zimbabwe, which

the right to privacy.

draw on the interviews conducted for this report:

•  Civil society will also have to strengthen its ad-

•  Civil  society  groups  need  to  reinvigorate

vocacy  on  internet  shutdowns,  which  are  likely

their  attention  on  the  digital  divide,  including

to be imposed in the future, as well as against

through  providing  disconnected  groups  and

unlawful  surveillance. There  is  a  need  to  advo-

people on the margins of society with access to

cate for reviews and amendments of all laws that

digital technology as well as training in digital

limit digital rights.

literacy skills.

•  They need to continue to raise awareness on the

•  Civil society organisations also need to intensify

importance of digital rights.

their advocacy on data costs.

ZIMBABWE / 229

DIGITAL FUTURES FOR A POST-PANDEMIC WORLD

2021-2022

Through the lens of the COVID-19 pandemic, this edition of

Global Information Society Watch (GISWatch) highlights the

different and complex ways in which democracy and human

rights are at risk across the globe, and illustrates how

fundamental meaningful internet access is to sustainable

development.

It includes a series of thematic reports, dealing with,

among others, emerging issues in advocacy for access,

platformisation, tech colonisation and the dominance of

the private sector, internet regulation and governance,

privacy and data, new trends in funding internet advocacy,

and building a post-pandemic feminist agenda. Alongside

these, 36 country and regional reports, the majority from the

global South, all offer some indication of how we can begin

mapping a shifted terrain.

GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY WATCH

GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY WATCH

2021-2022 Report

www.GISWatch.org

Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Internet governance of the future  . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

COUNTRY AND REGIONAL REPORTS

Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

THEMATIC REPORTS

Bangladesh  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Advocacy for community-led connectivity

Benin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Brazil  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

Another look at internet regulation:

Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Tech, data and the pandemic:

Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Big data, big tech, big problems:

Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Colombia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The rights approach: Pushing back against

Congo, Democratic Republic of  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Congo, Democratic Republic of  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Global digital labour platforms offer a mirage

Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

Advocacy in times of TRIPS waiver  . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Documenting and navigating emerging

India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Organising for sustainable connectivity:

Kenya  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Kenya  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

A feminist backpack for crises: Care-fullness,

Korea, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa,

Malawi  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Mexico  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Togo  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Mozambique  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Tunisia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Nepal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  173

unisia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211

Nigeria  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Uruguay  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186